Sexual Violence and the Making of ISIS
2015; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 57; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00396338.2015.1047251
ISSN1468-2699
Autores Tópico(s)Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
ResumoAbstractISIS deploys sexual violence in ways that mirror the states it is trying to supplant. Notes1 ‘Transcript: President Obama's Speech on Combating ISIS and Terrorism’, CNN, 10 September 2014, http://www.cnn.com”/2014/09/10/politics/transcript-obama-syria-isis-speech.2 See Katrina Lee-Koo, ‘“War on Terror”/“War on Women”’, in Alex J. Bellamy et al. (eds), Security and the War on Terror (New York: Routledge, 2007), pp. 42–54.3 Laura Sjoberg, Gender, War and Conflict (New York: Polity, 2014), p. 101.4 Ishaan Tharoor, ‘U.A.E.'s First Female Fighter Pilot Dropped Bombs on the Islamic State’, Washington Post, 24 September 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/09/25/u-a-e-s-first-female-fighter-pilot-dropped-bombs-on-the-islamic-state; Ivan Watson and Gul Tuysuv, ‘Kurdish Women a Force to Be Reckoned With for ISIS’, CNN, 29 October 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/29/world/us-newest-allies-syrian-kurds.5 Arthur Bright, ‘Syrian Kurds Give Women Grenades in Last-Ditch Defense Against Islamic State’, Christian Science Monitor, 6 October 2014, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/terrorism-security/2014/1006/Syrian-Kurds-give-women-grenades-in-last-ditch-defense-against-Islamic-State.6 Roger Cohen, ‘For ISIS, Slaughter is an End in Itself’, New York Times, 29 September 2014.7 Lawrence Wright, ‘ISIS's Savage Strategy’, New Yorker, 16 June 2014, http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/isiss-savage-strategy-in-iraq.8 Jennifer Heeg Maruska, ‘When Are States Hypermasculine?’, in Laura Sjoberg (ed.), Gender and International Security: Feminist Perspectives (New York: Routledge, 2009), pp. 235–55; and Valerie Hudson, Mary Caprioli, Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Rose McDermott and Chad F. Emmett, ‘The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States’, International Security, vol. 33, no. 3, 2009, pp. 7–45.9 See Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987).10 Laura Sjoberg and Jessica Peet, ‘A(nother) Dark Side of the Protection Racket: Targeting Women in War’, International Feminist Journal of Politics, vol. 13, no. 2, 2011, pp. 163–82.11 See Miranda Alison, ‘Wartime Sexual Violence: Women's Human Rights and Questions of Masculinity’, Review of International Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 2007, pp. 75–90; and Charli R. Carpenter, ‘Recognizing Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations’, Security Dialogue, vol. 37, no. 1, 2006, pp. 83–103.12 See Zachariah Cherian Mampilly, Rebel Rulers: Insurgent Governance and Civilian Life During War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011); Stathis N. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); and David Kilcullen, Counterinsurgency (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).13 This has been dubbed ‘competitive state-building’. See Paul Staniland, ‘States, Insurgents, and Wartime Political Orders’, Perspectives on Politics, vol. 10, no. 2, 2012, p. 243.14 Colin Schultz, ‘ISIS is Cutting Off Water to Uncooperative Villages’, Smithsonian, 7 October 2014, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ist/?next=/smart-news/isis-cutting-water-uncooperative-villages-180952959/.15 Hisham Sharabi, Neopatriarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).16 See Valentine M. Moghadam, ‘Patriarchy in Transition: Women and the Changing Family in the Middle East’, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 35, no. 2, 2004, pp. 137–62; Mark Neal, ‘A Comparison of Leadership Prototypes of Arab and European Females’, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 7, no. 3, 2007, pp. 291–316; Jennifer C. Olmsted, ‘Gender, Aging, and the Evolving Arab Patriarchal Contract’, Feminist Economics, vol. 11, no. 2, 2005, pp. 53–78; and Saud Joseph, ‘Patriarchy and Development in the Arab World’, Gender & Development, vol. 4, no. 2, 1996, pp. 14–19.17 See Halim Barakat, The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 23–6; Daniela Donna and Bruce Russett, ‘Islam, Authoritarianism, and Female Empowerment: What Are the Linkages?’, World Politics, vol. 56, no. 4, 2004, pp. 582–607; and Rolf Schwarz, ‘The Political Economy of State-Formation in the Arab Middle East: Rentier States, Economic Reform, and Democratization’, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 15, no. 4, 2008, pp. 599–621. On Saudi Arabia, see Madawi al-Rasheed, A Most Masculine State: Gender, Politics and Religion in Saudi Arabia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).18 Hamid Atiyyah, ‘Research Note: Research in Arab Countries, Published in Arabic’, Organization Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, 1992, pp. 105–10; Kenneth Pollack, ‘The Influence of Arab Culture on Arab Military Effectiveness’, dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1996.19 On the French mandate in Syria, see Elizabeth Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013). On the British mandate in Iraq, see Noga Efrati, Women in Iraq: Past Meets Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), Chapter 1; and Orit Bashkin, ‘Representations of Women in the Writings of the Intelligentsia in Hashemite Iraq, 1921–1958’, Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, vol. 4, no. 1, 2008, pp. 53–82.20 Ariel I. Ahram, Proxy Warriors: The Rise and Fall of State-Sponsored Militias (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), p. 84; Achim Rohde, ‘Opportunities for Masculinity and Love: Cultural Production in Ba'thist Iraq during the 1980s’, in Lahoucine Ouzgane (ed.), Islamic Masculinities (London: Zed Books, 2006), p. 10.21 Nikolaos van Dam, ‘Middle Eastern Political Clichés: “Takriti” and “Sunni rule” in Iraq; “Alawi rule” in Syria’, Orient, vol. 1, 1980, p. 5.22 On Iraq, see Kamyar Abdi, ‘From Pan-Arabism to Saddam Hussein's Cult of Personality: Ancient Mesopotamia and Iraqi National Ideology’, Journal of Social Archaeology, vol. 8, no. 1, 2008, pp. 3–36; and Donald Malcolm Reid, ‘The Postage Stamp: A Window on Saddam Hussein's Iraq’, Middle East Journal, vol. 47, no. 1, 1993, pp. 77–89. On Syria, see Lisa Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1999), pp. 49–65.23 Karen M. Kern, Imperial Citizen: Marriage and Citizenship in the Ottoman Frontier Provinces of Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011).24 Zainab Saleh, ‘On Iraqi Nationality: Law, Citizenship, and Exclusion’, Arab Studies Journal, vol. 21, no. 1, 2013, pp. 48–78; Noga Efrati, ‘Productive or Reproductive? The Roles of Iraqi Women During the Iraq–Iran War’, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 35, no. 2, 1999, pp. 27–44.25 Sarah Smiles, ‘On the Margins: Women, National Boundaries, and Conflict in Saddam's Iraq’, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, vol. 15, no. 3, 2008, pp. 271–96; Amatzia Baram, Saddam Husayn and Islam, 1968–2003: Ba'thi Iraq from Secularism to Faith (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), pp. 55–60.26 Kanan Makiya, Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994), pp. 291–3; Isam Al-Khafaji, ‘State Terror and the Degradation of Politics in Iraq’, Middle East Report, no. 176, 1992, p. 19.27 See Karin Mlodoch, ‘“We Want to be Remembered as Strong Women, Not as Shepherds”: Women Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan– Iraq Struggling for Agency and Acknowledgement’, Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, 2012, pp. 63–91; Andrea Fischer-Tahir, ‘Gendered Memories and Masculinities: Kurdish Peshmerga on the Anfal Campaign in Iraq’, Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, 2012, pp. 92–114; Choman Hardi, Gendered Experiences of Genocide: Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan– Iraq (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), pp. 77–100.28 Shereen T. Ismael, ‘Dismantling the Iraqi Social Fabric: From Dictatorship Through Sanctions to Occupation’, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 35, no. 2, 2004, pp. 333–49; Achim Rohde, State–Society Relations in Ba'thist Iraq (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2010), pp. 102, 109–11.29 Smiles, ‘On the Margins’, p. 286.30 Human Rights Watch, ‘Climate of Fear: Sexual Violations and Abductions of Women and Girls in Baghdad’, July 2003, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2003/07/15/climate-fear-0.31 Katrina Lee-Koo, ‘Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Women in Post-invasion Iraq: (Re) Politicizing George W. Bush's Silent Legacy’, Violence Against Women, vol. 17, no. 12, 2011, pp. 1,627–9.32 Nadje Sadig Al-Ali and Nicola Christine Pratt, What Kind of Liberation?: Women and the Occupation of Iraq (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009), pp. 133–9; Efrati, Women in Iraq: Past Meets Present, pp. 168–73.33 Cynthia H. Enloe, Nimo's War, Emma's War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010), pp. 57–60; Deborah Amos, Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East (New York: PublicAffairs, 2010), pp. 79–84.34 Laleh Khalili, ‘Tangled Webs of Coercion: Parastatal Production of Violence in Abu Ghraib’, in Laleh Khalili and Jillian Schwedler (eds), Prisons and Policing in the Modern Middle East and North Africa (London: C. Hurst & Co., 2010), pp. 77–96; Mark Danner, ‘Abu Ghraib: the hidden story’, New York Review of Books, 7 October 2004, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2004/oct/07/abu-ghraib-the-hidden-story/.35 Terrence McCoy, ‘How the Islamic State Evolved in an American Prison’, Washington Post, 4 November 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/11/04/how-an-american-prison-helped-ignite-the-islamic-state.36 Amnesty International, ‘Iraq: A Decade of Abuse’, March 2013, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE14/001/2013/en/bbd876ee-aa83-4a63-bff3-7e7c6ee130eb/mde140012013en.pdf.37 Human Rights Watch, ‘No One is Safe: Abuse of Women in Iraq's Criminal Justice System’, February 2014, pp. 1–5, http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/iraq0214webwcover.pdf. On Kurdistan, see Human Rights Watch, ‘Caught in the Whirlwind: Torture and Denial of Due Process in Iraqi Kurdistan’, July 2007, pp. 42–3, http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/kurdistan0707webwcover.pdf.38 Volker Perthes, ‘Si Vis Stailitatem, Para Bellum: State Building, National Security, and War Preparation in Syria’, in Steve Heydemann (ed.), War, Institutions, and Social Change in the Middle East (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000), pp. 149–73.39 Patrick Seale, Asad of Syria (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 283, 316–18; Umar F. Abd-Allah, The Islamic Struggle in Syria (Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1983).40 Cited in Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination, p. 47.41 Alan George, Syria: Neither Bread nor Freedom (London: Zed Books, 2003), pp. 12–13; James A. Paul, Human Rights in Syria (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1990), pp. 55, 137–9.42 Christa Salamandra, A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004), pp. 8–9; Mahmud Faksh, ‘The Alawi Community of Syria: A New Dominant Political Force’, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, 1984, pp. 133–53.43 Bassam Haddad, ‘Syria's State Bourgeoisie: An Organic Backbone for the Regime’, Middle East Critique, vol. 21, no. 3, Fall 2012, p. 248.44 US Department of State, ‘2011 Trafficking in Persons Report – Syria’, 27 June 2011, http://www.refworld.org/docid/4e12ee442.html.45 UN Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic’, A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1, 23 November 2011, p. 12, http://wpmedia.news.nationalpost.com/2011/11/a-hrc-s-17-2-add1.pdf.46 Joe Sterling, ‘Daraa: The Spark that Started the Syrian Flame’, CNN, 1 March 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/01/world/meast/syria-crisis-beginnings.47 Andrew Chapman, ‘Defining and Dangerous? An Examination of the Assad Regime's Use of the Shabiha Militia in the Syrian Conflict’, Center for International Studies and Diplomacy Yearbook of Global Studies, School of Oriental and Asian Studies, University of London, vol. 1, no. 1, 2014, p. 98.48 US Department of State, ‘2013 Trafficking in Persons Report – Syria’, 19 June 2013, http://www.refworld.org/docid/51c2f38518.html.49 Anthony Vinci, ‘Greed–Grievance Reconsidered: The Role of Power and Survival in the Motivation of Armed Groups’, Civil Wars, vol. 8, no. 1, 2006, pp. 25–45; Jeremy Weinstein, Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).50 ‘Iraq Crisis: ISIS Allies “Turn on Jihadists” as 17 Killed in Clashes Near Kirkuk’, Telegraph, 21 June 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10916360/Iraq-crisis-Isis-seize-Syria-border-crossing-as-Obama-blames-Iraqi-government-for-sectarian-divisions-latest.html; Tim Arango, ‘Uneasy Alliance Gives Insurgents an Edge in Iraq’, New York Times, 18 June 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/19/world/middleeast/former-loyalists-of-saddam-hussein-crucial-in-helping-isis.html.51 Shalaw Mohammed, ‘Dissent Within Extremist Ranks: “Good” Islamic State Fighters Versus “Bad”’, Niqash: Briefings From Inside and Across Iraq, 7 August 2014, http://www.niqash.org/articles/?id=3507.52 Kate Brennan, ‘Children of the Caliphate’, Foreign Policy, 27 October 2014, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/10/24/children_of_the_caliphate_iraq_syria_child_soldiers; Adam Withnall, ‘Inside the “School of Jihad”’, Independent, 23 October 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/inside-the-school-of-jihadisis-militants-release-shocking-videos-showing-what-education-means-for-boys-in-the-lands-it-occupies-9813525.html.53 Binaifer Nowrojee, ‘Making the Invisible War Crime Visible: Post-conflict Justice for Sierra Leone's Rape Victims’, Harvard Human Rights Journal, no. 18, 2005, p. 85; Phuong N. Pham, Patrick Vinck and Eric Stover, ‘The Lord's Resistance Army and Forced Conscription in Northern Uganda’, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, 2008, pp. 404–11.54 Ken Dilanian, ‘ISIS Takes in More Than $3 Million Per Day, Officials Say’, Boston Globe, 15 September 2014.55 Azam Ahmed, ‘In Retaking of Iraqi Dam, Evidence of American Impact’, New York Times, 19 August 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/20/world/middleeast/in-retaking-of-iraqi-dam-evidence-of-american-impact.html.56 UN Assistance Mission for Iraq Human Rights Office, ‘Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: 6 July–10 September 2014’, p. 15, http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC_Report_FINAL_6July_10September2014.pdf; Loveday Morris, ‘ISIS Brings Back Slavery: Yazidi Girls Sold to ISIS Fighters as Concubines for $1,000’, Independent, 13 October 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-brings-back-slavery-yazidi-girls-sold-to-isis-fighters-as-concubines-for-1000-9792056.html.57 Nik Squires, ‘Yazidi Girl Tells of Horrific Ordeal as ISIS Sex Slave’, Telegraph, 11 September 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/girls-horrific-ordeal-as-isis-sex-slave-2014-9.58 John Hall, ‘Islamic State Magazine Says Group Enslaves Yazidis’, Daily Mail, 12 October 2014, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2790131/Islamic-State-magazine-says-group-enslaved-Yazidis.html. For broader discussion, see Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Clark, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 1955), p. 129.59 Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI), ‘Islamic State (ISIS) Releases Pamphlet On Female Slaves’, 4 December 2014, http://www.memrijttm.org/islamic-state-isis-releases-pamphlet-on-female-slaves.html.60 Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), p. 92; Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 40.61 See, for example, Heather Saul, ‘Isis Fighters Throw Another “Gay” Man Off a Tower – and Stone Him to Death When He Survives Fall’, Independent, 4 March 2015, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-fighters-throw-another-gay-man-off-a-tower–and-stone-him-to-death-when-he-survives-fall-10084618.html.62 UN Iraq, ‘SRSG Bangura and SRSG Mladenov Gravely Concerned by Reports of Sexual Violence Against Internally Displaced Persons’, 7 August 2014, http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2373:srsg-bangura-and-srsg-mladenov-gravely-concerned-by-reports-of-sexual-violence-against-internally-displaced-persons&Itemid=605&lang=en.63 ‘ISIL Sexually Assaults New Recruits: Documentary’, al-Shorfa, 9 May 2014, http://www.aina.org/news/20140905031714.htm.64 On political marriages in early Islam, see William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 10–12, 102, 131. See also Nabia Abbott, ‘Women and the State in Early Islam’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, 1942, pp. 341–68; Andrey Korotayev, ‘Parallel-cousin (FBD) Marriage, Islamization, and Arabization’, Ethnology, vol. 39, no. 4, 2000, pp. 395–407.65 Najim Abed al-Jabouri and Sterlin Jensen, ‘The Iraqi and AQI Roles in the Sunni Awakening’, Prism, vol. 2, no. 1, 2010, http://cco.dodlive.mil/files/2014/02/Prism_3-18_Al-Jabouri_Jensen.pdf.66 Dominique Soguel, ‘Heard at Syria's Border: Life in the Islamic State is Orderly, But Brutal’, Christian Science Monitor, 21 September 2014, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2014/0921/Heard-at-Syria-s-border-Life-in-the-Islamic-State-is-orderly-but-brutal-video.67 ‘DAESH yu'alan fatah bab al-intisab ila kitai'b insa'iya’’ [ISIS declares the door open to joining the women's brigade], Asharq Alawsat, 2 February 2014, http://classic.aawsat.com/details.asp?section=4&article=759880&issueno=12850#.VE-0ifnF-Sp; Kathy Gilsinan, ‘The ISIS Crackdown on Women, by Women’, Atlantic, 25 July 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/07/the-women-of-isis/375047; Russell Myers, ‘British Female Jihadis Running ISIS “Brothels”’, Daily Mirror, 10 September 2014, http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/british-female-jihadis-running-isis-4198165.68 Raja Abdurahim, ‘Islamic State Recruiting Women to “Have Kids and Cook”’, Los Angeles Times, 21 September 2014, http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-isis-female-recruits-20140920-story.html#page=1; Steven Erlander, ‘In the West, ISIS Finds Women Eager to Enlist’, New York Times, 23 October 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/24/world/europe/as-islamists-seek-to-fill-ranks-more-western-women-answer-their-call.html.69 US Department of State, ‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013’, 19 June 2013, http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/index.htm; Amal Sakir, ‘Iraq a Hotbed of Human Trafficking’, Al-Monitor Iraq Pulse, 20 January 2014, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/01/iraq-human-trafficking-absence-law.html.Additional informationAriel I. Ahram is an Assistant Professor of Government and International Affairs in Virginia Tech's School of Public and International Affairs, and the author of Proxy Warrriors: The Rise and Fall of State-Sponsored Militias (Stanford University Press, 2011).
Referência(s)