Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

GEOGRAPHIC INEQUALITY UNDER SOCIALISM∗

1979; American Association of Geographers; Volume: 69; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01259.x

1467-8306

Roland J. Fuchs, George J. Demko,

Urbanization and City Planning

ABSTRACT Many studies have documented the existence of spatial socio-economic inequalities in developing nations, as well as developed, Western nations with market economies. Such spatial inequalities generally have been ascribed to deficiencies in the political, social, and economic systems prevailing in these states. Some writers have implied that under Marxist forms of socialism such inequalities would not occur and that territorial or spatial justice would prevail instead. This paper reviews evidence in recent literature bearing on the question of spatial equality and inequality in the socialist countries of the USSR and northeastern Europe, all of which profess an ideological commitment to the goal of eliminating spatial inequality. Judged from various perspectives—regional contrasts, urban-rural and urban-urban comparisons, and intraurban distinctions—the socialist states studied exhibit marked spatial inequalities. The persistence of these inequalities can be explained in terms of the priority placed on efficiency or military security as opposed to equity in industrial location decisions, the favoring of investment in "productive sectors" rather than social infrastructure, a desire to defer urbanization costs as reflected in constraints on urban growth, the growing scale requirements of service and human welfare facilities, and the continuation of substantial differences in income for various occupation groups. Notes ∗ This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. SOC75–21818 and Grant No. SOC75–22645. 1 Much of this work is summarized in B. E. Coates, R. J. Johnston, and P. L. Knox, Geography and Inequality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977). 2 Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1; see especially Chapters 2 and 3. 3 These studies have generally ignored discussion of the appropriateness of a) place-focused as opposed to people-focused equity concerns; b) spatial observation units and statistical measures, including problems of scale and variability; c) the equating of geographic equality with social equity, and geographic inequalities with social inequity. (See, however, Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1, pp. 19–22.) Harvey has suggested more sophisticated concepts of spatial social justice, but as yet they provide no operational criteria for defining equity. See David Harvey, "Social Justice and Spatial Systems," in Richard Peet, ed., Geographical Perspectives on American Poverty, Antipode Monographs in Social Geography, 1 (Worcester: Antipode, 1972), pp. 87–106. The difficulties inherent in determining whether spatial distributions are equitable are discussed at length in David M. Smith, Human Geography: A Welfare Approach (London: Arnold, 1977), pp. 131–57. The simplistic equating of equality and equity, despite its obvious deficiencies, is the perspective employed in this review as a matter of convenience and to maintain comparability with the previous studies of Western and developing countries. 4 Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1, p. 256. 5 See, for example, Richard Peet, "The Development of Radical Geography in the United States," in Richard Peet, ed., Radical Geography: Alternative Viewpoints on Contemporary Social Issues (Chicago: Maarouta Press, 1977), pp. 6–30, or various articles in the journal Antipode. 6 For example, Antipode, the major journal outlet for radical geographers, has published but two articles dealing with spatial inequalities in the communist nations: L. W. Murray, Jr., "Socioeconomic Development and Industrial Location in Poland: The Merging of Growth Pole and Growth Center Theories in a Socialist Economy,"Antipode, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1974), pp. 125 41; and Paul Susman, "Cuban Development: From Dualism to Integration,"Antipode, Vol. 6, No. 3 (1974), pp. 10 29. 7 Equality in socialist societies and economies is discussed in Paul Sweezy, Socialism (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), Chapter 1; Robert Heilbroner, Between Capitalism and Socialism (New York: Random House, 1970), Chapter 5; and Michael Harrington, Socialism (New York: Bantam, 1973), Chapter 14. 8 See V. Zlatin and V. Rutgaizer, "Comparison of the Levels of Economic Development of Union Republics and Large Regions,"Problems of Economics, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1969), pp. 3 24; the methodological difficulties of measuring areal inequalities are also explored in I. V. Kantsebovskaya and T. G. Runova, "Problems in the Methodology of Measuring and Mapping the Level of Economic Development of the USSR,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 15, No. 9 (1974), pp. 566 72. 9 See, for example, "The New Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union," in Arthur P. Mendel, ed., Essential Works of Marxism (New York: Bantam, 1961), pp. 371–486, reference on p. 428; "Basic Guidelines for the Development of the USSR National Economy in 1976–1980,"Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 28, No. 5 (1976), pp. 13–17, reference on p. 13; Richard E. Lonsdale, "Regional Inequity and Soviet Concern for Rural and Smalltown Industrialization,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 18 (1977), pp. 590 602; and Robert G. Jensen, "Soviet Regional Development Policy and the 10th Five-Year Plan,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 196 201. 10 Instead the socialist countries provide regional estimates of national income based on material production (identified in the text as "Marxist definition"), which exclude service and government sector net value added. Since the excluded tertiary industries are likely to be concentrated in the most highly urbanized and developed areas, the effect is to "impart a downward bias on interregional differences." See I. S. Koropeckyj, "Equalization of Regional Development in Socialist Countries: An Empirical Study,"Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1972), pp. 68 86, reference on pp. 69–70. 11 Gertrude E. Schroeder, "Regional Differences in Incomes and Levels of Living in the USSR," in V. N. Bandera and Z. L. Melnyk, The Soviet Economy in Regional Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1973), pp. 167–95. 12 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. 168–69. The Soviet economist Divilov provides somewhat different indices of per capita national income which show a range from 56.4 percent of the national average in Tadjikistan to 133.3 percent in Estonia. See S. Divilov, "Labor Resources and the Comparison of General Economic Indices by Union Republic,"Problems of Economics, Vol. 15, No. 11 (1973), pp. 63 72, reference on p. 65. 13 I. S. Koropeckyj, "National Income of the Soviet Union Republics in 1970: Revision and Some Applications," in Zbigniew M. Fallenbuchl, ed., Economic Development in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1975), Vol. 1, pp. 287–331. It should be noted that Koropeckyj views these GNP figures as more indicative of production potential than population welfare. 14 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 13, p. 316. 15 David S. Kamerling, "Regional Inequality in the Availability of Health Care in the Soviet Union,"Proceedings, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 8 (1976), pp. 125 29; and Alice Andrews, "Spatial Patterns of Higher Education in the Soviet Union,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 29 (1978), pp. 443 57. 16 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, p. 193. 17 Zlatin and Rutgaizer, op. cit., footnote 8, p. 10. Since this period coincides with the period of decentralized management and the sovnarkhozi it could be construed as evidence that such decentralized management and planning favors spatial inequity. But, Zwick, studying a longer period, finds that "no substantial reduction in the level of inequality among the Soviet republics occurred between 1940 and 1970." See Peter Zwick, "Intrasystem Inequality and the Symmetry of Socioeconomic Development in the USSR,"Comparative Politics, Vol. 8 (1976), pp. 501 23, reference on p. 521. 18 See, e.g., Murray, op. cit., footnote 6; Zbigniew Fallenbuchl, "The Development of the Less Developed Regions in Poland, 1950, 1970," in Andrew F. Burghardt, ed., Development Regions in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Canada (New York: Praeger, 1975), pp. 14–42; Gerald Karaska, "Perspectives on the Less Developed Regions in Poland," in Burghardt, op. cit., this footnote, pp. 43–64; and I. S. Koropeckyj, "Regional Development in Postwar Poland,"Soviet Studies, Vol. 29 (1977), pp. 108 27. Numerous relevant articles by Polish geographers have appeared in the journal Geographia Polonica and by geographers, economists, and planners in publications of the Committee for Space Economy and Regional Planning of the Polish Academy of Sciences. 19 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 45. 20 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 45. 21 Fallenbuchl, op. cit., footnote 18. 22 Fallenbuchl, op. cit., footnote 18. 23 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 64. 24 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 115. 25 Henry Zimon, "Regional Inequalities in Poland: 1960–1975," unpublished Masters thesis, Ohio State University, 1978. 26 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 113. 27 György Enyedi, "Development Regions on the Hungarian Great Plain," in Burghardt, op. cit., footnote 18, pp. 65–74, reference on p. 68. 28 G. Enyedi, "The Development of Backward Areas in Hungary," in V. M. Gokhman, G. A. Privalovskaya, and Yu. G. Saushkin, eds., General Economic Geography (Moscow: International Geographical Union, 1976), pp. 201–03, reference on p. 202. 29 Leslie Dienes, "Urban Growth and Spatial Planning in Hungary,"Tijdschrift voor Econ. en Soc. Geografie, Vol. 64 (1973), pp. 24 38, reference on pp. 29–31. 30 Dienes, op. cit., footnote 29, p. 30. 31 Dienes, op. cit., footnote 29, p. 31. Discussion of regional disparities is also contained in Ivan T. Berend, "Development Strategy and Urbanization in Hungary: 1950–1970," in Alan A. Brown, Joseph H. Licardi, and Egon Neuberger, eds., Urban and Social Economics in Market and Planned Economies (New York: Praeger, 1974), Vol. 1, pp. 271–87. For recent commentaries by Hungarian scholars, see the following publications of the Geographical Research Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences: Paul A. Compton and Marton Pécsi, eds., Regional Development and Planning, Studies in Geography in Hungary, No. 12 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1976), and Gy. Enyedi, ed., Rural Transformation in Hungary, Studies in Geography in Hungary, No. 13 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1976). 32 Kosta Mihailovic, Regional Development Experiences and Prospects in Eastern Europe (Paris: Mouton, 1972), pp. 50–53. 33 Dieter Scholz, "Die Wirtschaftsraumliche Struktur der DDR,"Geographische Berichte, Vol. 59 (1971), pp. 83 101 and Heinz Lüdemann, "The Process of Equalizing Regional Development in the German Republic," in W. Peter Adams and Fredick M. Helleiner, eds., International Geography, 1972 (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1972), Vol. 1, pp. 388–90. See also William H. Berentsen, "Industrialization in the German Democratic Republic: The Impact on Regional Planning," in Robert West and Clarissa Kimber, eds., AAG Program Abstracts, New Orleans, 1978 (Washington: AAG, 1978), pp. 121–22. 34 Mihailovic, op. cit., footnote 32, p. 27. 35 Generalizations regarding agricultural incomes are difficult to make. Data are "skimpy, contradictory and often deliberately misleading"—Arthur E. Adams and Jan S. Adams, Men Versus Systems: Agriculture in the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia (New York: Free Press, 1971), p. 26. The difficulties are compounded by the simultaneous existence of state, collective, and private sectors, with income from the latter poorly recorded. Also, the importance of each sector varies widely from country to country. 36 Computed from Statisticheskoy Yezhegodnik Stranchlenov Sovyeta Ekonomicheskoy Vzaimopomoshchi-1971 (Statistical Yearbook of the Member Countries of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance-1971) (Moscow: Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, 1971), pp. 389–92; and Statisticheskoy Yezhegodnik Stranchlenov Sovyeta Ekonomicheskoy Vzaimopomoshchi-1976 (Statistical Yearbook of the Member Countries of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance-1976) (Moscow: Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, 1976), pp. 422–24. 37 The new internal passport regulations, which provide for issuance of passports to all citizens, including collective farmers, are described in "On Adoption of the Statute on the Passport System in the USSR,"Soviet Law and Government, Vol. 14, No. 3 (Winter, 1975–76), pp. 67–80. 38 David E. Powell, "The Rural Exodus,"Problems of Communism, Vol. 23, No. 6 (1974), pp. 1 13, reference on p. 8. 39 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 25, No. 2 (1973), p. 23. 40 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 25, No. 40 (1973), pp. 4–5; Vol. 28, No. 2 (1976), p. 14. 41 Powell, op. cit., footnote 38, pp. 6–7. 42 Powell, op. cit., footnote 38, pp. 4–9. 43 Hedrick Smith, The Russians (New York: Quadrangle, 1976), p. 207. The net migration figure includes approximately five million formerly rural residents of settlements, the status of which changed from rural to urban. 44 Gy. Barta, "Changes in the Living Conditions of the Rural Population," in Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 89–110. 45 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, pp. 107–09. 46 See Andrei Amalrick, Involuntary Journey to Siberia (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), for a description of isolated Siberian villages; and Adams and Adams, op. cit., footnote 35, for observations on farms in the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia. 47 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, reference on p. 177. 48 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, p. 98. 49 Soviet practices and problems in this respect are discussed by Robert G. Jensen, "Regional Pricing and the Economic Evaluation of Land in Soviet Agriculture," in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. 305–27. 50 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, p. 108. 51 This is in contrast to aggregate "housing space" (obshchaya ploshchad) which includes both living and nonliving space. 52 Viktor Perevedentsev, "Statistics: Housing,"as translated in Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 27, No. 4 (1975), p. 20. 53 See, e.g., Smith, op. cit., footnote 43, chapter 13, for his observations on Siberian cities. 54 G. Mil'ner and E. Gilinskaya, "Mezhrayonnoye Regulirovaniye Urovnya Zhizni Naseleniya" (Interregional Regulation of the Level of Living of the Population), Planovoye Khozyaystvo, Vol. 52, No. 1 (1975), pp. 56 63, reference on p. 60. 55 Henry W. Morton, "What Have Soviet Leaders Done About the Housing Crisis," in Henry W. Morton and Rudolf L. Tökes, eds., Soviet Politics and Society in the 1970's (New York: The Free Press, 1974), pp. 163–99, reference on p. 122. 56 Morton, op. cit., footnote 55, p. 122. 57 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 23, No. 13 (1971), pp. 6–7. 58 Karel Joseph Kansky, Urbanization Under Socialism: The Case of Czechoslovakia (New York: Praeger, 1976), see especially pp. 239–44. 59 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 241. 60 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 242. 61 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 243. 62 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 244. 63 See Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting in the USSR and Eastern Europe: Causes, Characteristics and Consequences,"East European Quarterly, Vol. 11 (1977), pp. 463 75; Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting in the USSR,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 363 72; and John Sallnow, "Commuter Movement in Belorussia,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 416 25. 64 See Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Spatial Population Policies in the Socialist Countries of Eastern Europe,"Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 58 (1977), pp. 60 73; and also György Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi, "Social Conflicts of Underurbanization," in Brown, Licardi, Neuberger, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 206–26. 65 James H. Bater, "Soviet Town Planning: Theory and Practice in the 1970's,"Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 1 (1977), pp. 177 207, reference on p. 193. 66 Konrad and Szelenyi, op. cit., footnote 64, p. 223. 67 B. S. Khorev, T. K. Smolina, and N. G. Sominskaya, "Commuting Patterns in the Suburban Towns of Small and Middle Size Towns,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1973), pp. 24–33; B. Sárfalvi, "Various Mechanisms of Internal Migration in Hungary," in B. Sárfalvi, ed., Research Problems in Hungarian Applied Geography (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1969), p. 145. 68 It is interesting to note that the "out-commuters" of cities to satellite towns and rural areas are largely "highly skilled workers and employees of unique institutes" in the case of Moscow, and "white collar workers" in the case of Hungary. See V. G. Gluskova and V. A. Kopilov, "Interaction of Large Metropolitan Cities with Their Suburbs (A Case Study of Moscow)," in S. A. Kovalev and B. S. Khorev, eds., Geography of Population (Moscow: International Geographical Union, 1976), pp. 266–69, reference on p. 267; and Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 31, p. 19. 69 Social area analysis and factorial ecology approaches and findings are reviewed in Chapter 10, "Concepts of Social Space: Toward an Urban Social Geography," in Brian J. L. Berry and Frank E. Horton, Geographic Perspectives on Urban Systems (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1970), pp. 306–94. 70 A description of socialist urban planning goals is contained in Jack C. Fisher, "Planning the City of Socialist Man,"Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 28 (1962), pp. 251 65, reference on p. 252. 71 Irwin Adams and Richard Francaviglia, "Urban Planning in Poland Today,"Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 41 (1975), pp. 258 69, reference on p. 264. 72 Grzegorz Weclawowicz, Struktura Przestrzeni Spoleczno-Gospodarczej Warszawy w Latach 1931 i 1970 w Swietle Analizy Czynnikowej (The Structure of Socio-Economic Space of Warsaw in 1931 and 1970 in the Light of Factor Analysis, Prace Geograficzne Nr. 116, Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennogo Zagospodarowania) (Warsaw: Polska Akademia Nauk, 1975). See also the author's article, "The Structure of the Socio-Economic Space in Warsaw in 1931 and 1970,"Geographia Polonica, Vol. 37 (1977), pp. 201–224. A recently published factorial ecology study of Moscow unfortunately makes no use of occupational, income, housing, ethnic and related social data required for social area analysis and therefore reveals nothing of the social geography of Moscow. See N. B. Barbasheh, "Opyt Issledovaniya Faktoronoy Ekologii g. Moskvy" (An Attempt at Investigating the Factorial Ecology of the City of Moscow), in Yu. V. Medvedkov, ed., Gorodskaya Sreda i Puti eye Optimizatsii (The Urban Environment and Means of Its Optimization) (Moscow: Institut Geografii Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1977), pp. 37–53. 73 Weclawowicz, 1975, op. cit., footnote 72, p. 119. 74 Weclawowicz, 1975, op. cit., footnote 72, p. 120. 75 Ivan Szeleýi, "The Housing System and Social Structure in Hungary," in Bernard Lewis Faber, ed., The Social Structure of Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. 301–29, reference on p. 329. 76 Reported in Szeleýi, op. cit., footnote 75, p. 313. 77 Szeleýi, op. cit., footnote 75, p. 315. 78 Berry and Horton, op. cit., footnote 69. It should be noted, however, that this does not mean identical patterns will result. There are differences in what are considered desirable locations in North America and Eastern Europe. Also socialist cities lack the extremes of luxury and slum housing found in North America. 79 J. Korodi, "Regional Development Policy and Regional Planning in Hungary," in Compton and Pécsi, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 25–33, reference on p. 25. 80 These principles state that "industry should be located within a nation in such a manner as to 1) ensure national military security, 2) improve the socio-economic conditions of minority ethnic population groups, 3) develop rapidly the 'backward regions' in the state, 4) achieve an 'even' dispersion throughout the national territory, 5) eliminate socio-economic differentials between urban and rural areas, 6) process available natural resources and use energy near their production sources, 7) serve market areas from central places, 8) achieve regional specialization of production, 9) achieve regional self-sufficiency in industrial output, and last, but not least, 10) industry should be located internationally to facilitate greater international division of labour (specialization) within the COMECON organization." F. E. Ian Hamilton, "Decision-Making and Industrial Location in Eastern Europe," in John Blunden, Christopher Brook, Geoffrey Edge, and Alan Hay, Regional Analysis and Development (London: Harper and Row, 1973), pp. 235–48, reference on p. 235. 81 Vsevolovod Holubnychy, "Spatial Efficiency in the Soviet Economy," in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. 1–44, references on pp. 21 and 32. 82 F. E. Ian Hamilton, "Spatial Dimensions of Soviet Economic Decision Making," in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, reference on p. 257. 83 Pravda, 22 December 1972, p. 5. The implications of Brezhnev's statement are explored in detail in Zwick, op. cit., footnote 17. 84 Cited in Holubnychy, op. cit., footnote 81, p. 25. 85 See I. S. Koropeckyj, "Industrial Location Policy in the USSR During the Postwar Period," in Joint Economic Committee, Economic Performance and the Military Burden in the Soviet Union (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 232–95. Investment priorities are also examined in Leslie Dienes, "Investment Priorities in Soviet Regions,"Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 62 (1972), pp. 437 54; Allan Rodgers, "The Locational Dynamics of Soviet Industry,"Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 64 (1974), pp. 226 40; and George Huzinec, "The Impact of Industrial Decision-Making Upon the Soviet Urban Hierarchy,"Urban Studies, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 139 48. 86 See Mihailovic, op. cit., footnote 32; Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 27, Berend, op. cit., footnote 31; and Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18. 87 F. E. Ian Hamilton, "The Location of Industry in East-Central and Southeast Europe," in George W. Hoffman, ed., Eastern Europe: Essays in Geographical Problems (New York: Methuen, 1968), pp. 173–213, reference on p. 182. 88 I. S. Koropeckyj, "Equalization of Regional Development in Socialist Countries: An Empirical Study,"Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 21 (1972), pp. 68 86, reference on p. 84. 89 J. G. Williamson, "Regional Inequality and the Process of National Development: A Description of the Pattern,"Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 13 (1965), Pt. 2, pp. 3 84. However the socialist countries, according to Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 88, do not exhibit a tendency to increased regional divergence in the early stages of development. 90 Gus Ofer, "Economizing on Urbanization in Socialist Countries: Historical Necessity or Socialist Strategy," in Alan A. Brown and Egon Neuberger, eds., Internal Migration: A Comparative Perspective (New York: Academic, 1977), pp. 277–303. See also György Konrad and Ivan Szeleýi, "Social Conflicts of Under-Urbanization," in Brown, Licardi, and Neuberger, eds., op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 206–48. 91 Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "The Postwar Mobility Transition in Eastern Europe,"Geographical Review, Vol. 88 (1978), pp. 171 82. 92 Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting and Urbanization in the Socialist Countries of Europe,"Bulletin, The Association of Comparative Economic Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1 (1977), pp. 21 38. 93 See Chapter Six of Andrew N. White, "Locational Analysis for Public Facilities: Models, Patterns, and Processes," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1976. The general problem is also treated in V. Dokmeci, "An Optimization Model for a Hierarchial Spatial System,"Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1973), pp. 439 51. Size and location problems for productive facilities are discussed in Alan S. Maine, ed., Investments for Capacity Expansion: Size, Location and Time-Phasing (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1967). 94 In Poland, for example, censorship instructions include the following: "Any specific references to the particulars of wages and salaries offered by firms and institutions seeking employees through advertisements in the mass media should be eliminated … All criticism of income and social policies, including wage claims, is forbidden." See "Big Brother in Poland,"The Guardian, November 20, 1977, p. 16. 95 Lane has estimated that "the ratio of the maximum to the average earned income in industry is approximately 15/20:1." See David Lane, The Socialist Industrial State (Boulder: Westview, 1977), p. 178. 96 Estimated in the USSR to amount to thirty-five percent of average monthly earnings. Martin Schnitzer, Income Distribution (New York: Praeger, 1974), p. 18. 97 A description of these "secondary benefits" in the USSR is provided in Mervyn Matthews, "Top Incomes in the USSR,"Survey, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1975), pp. 1 27. 98 See, for example, Peter Wiles, "Recent Data on Soviet Income Distribution,"Survey, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1975), pp. 28 41; Alastair McAuley, "The Distribution of Earnings and Incomes in the Soviet Union,"Soviet Studies, Vol. 29 (1977), pp. 214 237; Schnitzer, op. cit., footnote 96; and Shail Jain, Size Distribution of Income: A Compilation of Data (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1975). Both Schnitzer and Jain contain information on income distribution in Eastern Europe. Also relevant are works on social stratification, for example, Murray Yanowitch and Wesley A. Fisher, eds., Social Stratification and Mobility in the USSR (White Plains: IASP, 1973); Murray Yanowitch, Social and Economic Inequality in the Soviet Union (White Plains: M. E. Sharpe, 1977); Bernard Lewis Faber, ed., The Social Structure of Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1976); Frank Parkin, Class Inequality and Political Order: Social Stratification in Capitalist and Communist Societies (New York: Praeger, 1971); Alexander Matejko, Social Change and Stratification in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1974); Mervyn Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia (New York: Walker, 1972), especially Chapter 4; and David Lane, op. cit., footnote 95, Chapter 7. 99 Wiles, op. cit., footnote 98, p. 33 and p. 35. 100 Wiles, op. cit., footnote 98, p. 33 and p. 35. 101 Wiles' earning and income data exclude taxes; however, the tax structure in the socialist countries is highly regressive since income taxes are low and the major form of taxation is a hidden sales tax—the so-called "turnover tax." 102 Lest such inequalities are viewed as peculiar to Soviet forms of socialism it should be noted that marked income and privilege inequalities also prevail in the People's Republic of China. "The Maoist bureaucracy today has thirty hierarchial classes, each with specific privileges and prerogatives … monthly salaries range from 20° at the bottom to 728° at the top." Simon Leys, Chinese Shadows (New York: Viking Press, 1977), references on p. 113 and p. 117. 103 See Schnitzer, op. cit., footnote 96, pp. 14–22. 104 In the Soviet Union, it was suggested in the 1961 Party Program, this higher phase would begin about 1980; recently, however, references to any date have been dropped, implying an indefinite deferral of this phase. 105 See Wiles, op. cit., footnote 98. 106 See Matthews, op. cit., footnote 98, p. 79; and Schnitzer, op. cit., footnote 96, p. 21. 107 It is impossible to compare spatial inequalities in Eastern Europe with those in the West in any precise way because of data limitations and the varying sizes of areal units; on the whole it is likely that in most of the countries referred to, with the exception of the Soviet Union, spatial inequalities are less than in the West. This would also appear to be the conclusion of Echols in his comparison of regional fiscal distributive policies in communist and capitalist systems: John M. Echols, "Politics, Budgets and Regional Equality in Communist and Capitalist Systems,"Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 8 (1975), pp. 259 92. 108 Parkin, op. cit., footnote 98, p. 163. 109 Parkin, op. cit., footnote 98, p. 162. 110 See Robert A. Lewis, Richard H. Rowland, and Ralph S. Clem, Nationality and Population Change in Russia and the USSR: An Evaluation of Census Data, 1897–1970 (New York: Praeger, 1976), especially Chapter 10, pp. 343–87. 111 See Walter D. Connor, "Social Change and Stability in Eastern Europe,"Problems of Communism, Vol. 26 (November–December 1977), pp. 16 32. 112 Goldman and Taga rely on a similar explanation for environmental mismanagement and pollution in the Soviet Union. See M. I. Goldman, "Environmental Disruption in the Soviet Union," in Thomas R. Detwyler, Man's Impact on Environment (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), pp. 61–80; and Leonore Shever Taga, "Externalities in a Command Society," in Fred Singleton, ed., Environmental Misuse in the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. 75–100. 113 On this point see Ian Bowen, Acceptable Inequalities (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1970), p. 138. 114 Edgar M. Hoover, "Some Old and New Issues in Regional Development," in E. A. G. Robinson, ed., Backward Areas in Advanced Countries (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1969), pp. 343–54, reference on p. 348.