ORGANIZED AND UNSOLICITED COLLABORATION IN THE HOLOCAUST
2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 37; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13501670701430560
ISSN1743-971X
Autores Tópico(s)Polish Historical and Cultural Studies
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Professor John‐Paul Himka, of the University of Alberta, and Professor Roman Koropeckyj, of the University of California‐Los Angeles, for their advice and feedback. I am thankful to Dr Sam Johnson, Managing Editor of East European Jewish Affairs, for her valuable suggestions, and to Professor Wendy Lower, of Towson University, for her support. Thanks also to the staff of Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation for facilitating my research on this topic. My family deserve special thankfulness for its help and support. Notes 1. Armstrong, "Collaboration in World War II," 396. 2. On the selective historiography of the question, see Himka, "Ukrainian Collaboration in the Extermination of the Jews During World War II," 170–89; Himka, "Krakivs'ki Visti and the Jews, 1943"; Pohl, "Ukrainische Hilfskräfte beim Mord an den Juden," 205–34; Redlich, "Metropolitan Andrii Sheptytskyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian–Jewish Relations," 61–76; Finder and Prusin, "Collaboration in Eastern Galicia"; Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust, 20, 79, 100–02, note 177; Musial, "Konterrevolutionäre Elemente sind zu erschiessen"; Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 38–88. 3. The term "psychological distance" is in the title of the article by Barbara Engelking‐Boni. See Engelking‐Boni, "Psychological Distance Between Poles and Jews in Nazi‐Occupied Warsaw," 47. 4. Historically controversial Ukrainian leaders who are acknowledged for their struggle against Poland or Russia and are closely associated with bloody Jewish massacres. The Ukrainian attitude to them is somewhat ambivalent, but overall favourable. For the Jews they symbolize a precursor to Holocaust or in some instances perpetrators of the earlier Holocausts. 5. Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 136; Rabbi Kahane was sheltered by Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytskyi in his residence on St George Hill in Lviv. 6. Ezikial Lewin was arrested by the Ukrainian militia and machine gunned by the Germans at the Brygidki prison in Lviv; see Jones, Zydzi Lwowa w okresie okupacji, 48; Redlich, "Metropolitan Andrii Sheptytskyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian–Jewish Relations," 68; Khonigsman, Katastrofa Evreistva ZapandnoiUkrainy, 112. 7. Kurt L. "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, 30 January 1997, New York, USA, tape 5, time code 05.06. 8. Pan'kivs'kyi, Roky nimets'koi okpatsii; Pan'kivs'kyi, Vid derzhavy do komitetu; Kubijovyč, Ukraintsi v Heneral'nii hubernii. 9. Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Organizatsiia Ukrains'kykh Natsionalistiv): established in 1929 in the result of restructuring of the Ukrainian Military Organization, the OUN was the leading interwar and wartime Ukrainian nationalist movement. In April 1940, the Organization split on two wings: a more radical youth movement under Stepan Bandera and the followers of Andrii Mel'nyk. The factions then called respectively OUN‐B and OUN‐M. 10. More on the theme can be found in the work of Ilnytzkyj, Deutschland und die Ukraine, vol. 1, 64–71, 75, vol. 2, 94, 144; for examples of works on a Ukrainian Diaspora, see Boshyk, Ukraine During World War II; Kosyk, The Third Reich and the Ukrainian Question; Hunczak, UPA v svitli nimets'kykh dokumentiv; Potichnyj and Shtendera, Political Thought of the Ukrainian Underground; Savchyn Pryskir, Thousands of Roads; Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth Century Ukraine. 11. Himka, "Ukrainian Collaboration in the Extermination of the Jews During World War II," 170. 12. On the Jedwabne tragedy, see Gross, Neighbors. On the discussion of the Jedwabne tragedy and the alleged controversies of Jan T. Gross's work, see Chodakiewicz, The Massacre in Jedwabne July 10, 1941; Polonsky and Michlic, The Neighbors Respond; Michlic, Coming to Terms with the Dark Past. 13. Gross, "Themes for a Social History of War Experience and Collaboration," 25. 14. Redlich, Together and Apart in Brzezany, 101. 15. Burleigh, The Third Reich, 534, 535. 16. "Reichskommissariat Ukraine," in Pidkova and Shust, Dovidnyk z istorii Ukrainy, 13. On the administrative structure of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, see Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism (1963a Armstrong, John A. 1963a. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 2nd ed, Littleton, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), 113. 17. Ibid. 18. Banac, "Fascism in the Croatian Practice," 212, 213; Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, 756, 757, 766, 767; Kirschbam, A History of Slovakia, 196–210. 19. On the place Ukraine occupied in German pre‐war politics, see Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 107–22; Krawchenko, "Soviet Ukraine and Germany, 1920–1929," 110–25; Burleigh, The Third Reich, 444–45, 533–35. 20. Alfred Rosenberg, Reich Minister for the Occupied Eastern Territories (Ostminister), was known for his favourable policy towards Ukraine and Ukrainians. He was in permanent discontent with his formal subordinate but, in fact, a rival, the Reichskommisar of the Ukraine, Erich Koch. The latter was notoriously known for his drastic measures against the indigenous Ukrainian population. On the issue of confrontation and controversy between Rosenberg and Koch with the respect of the Ukraine, see Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 123–82; Burleigh, The Third Reich, 536–38. 21. Krakiv'ski Visti (Cracow), 30 October 1940, 2. 22. The reinstatement of the independent Ukrainian state was proclaimed in Lviv on 30 June 1941 by the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalist (Bandera faction). The proclamation of the state had not become fait accompli, and German authorities, having ultimately clarified the matter in Berlin, resolved the issue in the negative for Ukrainians terms. The Act of Independence of 30 June 1941 causes a polemic in historical literature. Here are some works reflecting the situation with the Act of Independence: Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 2nd ed. (1980 Armstrong, John A. 1980. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 2nd ed, Littleton, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Google Scholar]), 77–84; Dallin, German Rule in Russia 1941–1945, 119–22; Kosyk, The Third Reich and the Ukrainian Question, 46–57; Poliszczuk, Bitter Truth, 154–67; Pan'kivs'kyi, Roku nimets'skoi okupatsii. 23. Sichovyky—members of Ukrainian paramilitary formations Sich, a term that originates in Cossack lexicon. 24. Aron E., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in English, New York, USA, May 1997, time‐code: 06.26. 25. Banderites or Banderivtsi—members of the Bandera‐led faction of OUN‐B. 26. Arkadii F., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Russian, Kiev, Ukraine, April 1998, time‐code 02.11. 27. On the relations between German authorities and leadership of OUN and on OUNs approach to Jews, see Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism (1990 Armstrong, John A. 1990. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 3rd ed, Englewood, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Google Scholar]); Burleigh, The Third Reich, 445, 445; Berkhoff and Carynnyk, "The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude Toward Germans and Jews"; Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 118, 119. 28. Boris A., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Ukrainian, Ivano‐Frankivs'k, Ukraine, May 1997, time‐code 02.16; 02.22. 29. UPA: Ukrains'ka Povstan's'ka Armia (Ukrainian Insurgent Army), a Ukrainian military formation first organized in Volhynia in 1941 and known at that time as Polis'ka Sich. From February to March 1943, when OUN gained control over the units of Ukrainian partisan, the unified name of UPA was adopted. The UPA saw its goal in liberating Ukraine from the Nazis and the Soviets. 30. Roman Shukhevych (pseudonym Taras Chuprynka), General, Commander of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, and from the end of 1944 Supreme Commander of all Ukrainian fighting forces under UHVR (Main Ukrainian Liberation Council), cited in Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, 648; Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism (1963b Armstrong, John A. 1963b. Ukrainian Nationalism, New York: Columbia University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), 292; Boris A., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation," time‐code 03.12. 31. Boris A., "Interview," time‐code 03.12. 32. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 2nd ed. (1980 Armstrong, John A. 1980. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 2nd ed, Littleton, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Google Scholar]), 292. 33. Klara G., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Russian, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 1996, time‐code 3.00–3.10. 34. Banderovite, also Banderovtsi—a member or members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalist (OUN), the leading wartime Ukrainian nationalist movement. In 1940, OUN split into two factions—OUN‐M under Andrii Mel'nyk, and OUN‐B under Stepan Bandera. The name of the more radical Bandera's faction came to represent the entire movement, especially in the eyes of non‐Ukrainian population. 35. Simon F., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in English, Pittsburg, PA, USA, April 1997, segment 15. 36. Ibid., segment 17. 37. NKVD: Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs). Soviet political police. 38. Liudmila B., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Russian, Rishon Le Ziyyon, Israel, July 1997, segments 98–101; segments 84–86, 90, 93. 39. Kalman S., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in English, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, October 1997, tape 1, segment 27. 40. Faina L., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Ukrainian, Peremyshliany, Ukraine, May 1998, segments 64–84. 41. Univ monastery: a monastery of Greek Catholic rite, located near the village of Iaktoriv of Zolochiv district in Ukraine. During the war, the Greek Catholic hierarchs—Mother Superior Jozefa (Olena) Witter under the auspices of Klementii and Adrei Sheptytskyi provided refuge to more than 200 Jewish children and adults. 42. Faina L., "Interview," segments 149, 185. 43. Cited in Himka, "Ukrainian Collaboration in the Extermination of the Jews During World War II," 179, 180. 44. Ida K., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in English, West Orange, NJ, USA, September 1996, segments 65, 90. 45. Cited in Berkhoff and Carynnyk, "The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude toward Germans and Jews," 155; written in 1929 by Iu. Mulianych. 46. Mike W., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in English, Toronto, Canada, March 1996, time‐code 03.03. 47. Hrycak, "Ukrainians in Anti‐Jewish Actions in World War II," 64, 65, 66. 48. On the collaboration, perpetration and German policy toward the local population on these territories, see Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien; Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews; Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust; Weiner, Making Sense of War. 49. Lvivs'ki Visti (Lviv), 21–22 June 1942, 1; Krakivs'ki Visti (Cracow), 23 June 1941, 1. 50. On discussion of pogroms in eastern Galician cities, see Pohl, "Ukrainische Hilfskräfte beim Mord an den Juden," 205–34; Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien, 60–67; Sandkühler, "Endlösung" in Galizien, 114–18; Redlich, "Metropolitan Andrii Sheptytskyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian–Jewish Relations," 68, 69; Gross, Revolution from Abroad, 180, 181; Friedman, "Ukrainian‐Jewish Relations During the Nazi Occupation," 372, 373; Friedman, "The Destruction of the Jews of Lwów," 661–64; Węgierski, Lwów pod okupacją sowiecką 1939–1941, 77–80. 51. Jones, Zydzi Lwowa w okresie okupacji, 47. 52. GPU: Glavnoe Politicheskoe Upravlenie (Main Political Office), Soviet political police, predecessor to the NKVD. 53. On the polemic on the composition of the Soviet political police and administration, see Musial, Konterrevolutionäre Elemente, 45–57, 66–69, 73–76 and passim; Gross, "A Tangled Web," 94, 95, 98; Weiner, Making Sense of War, 269; Rudling, "Bogdan Musial and the Question of Jewish Responsibility," 69–83. 54. Petrov and Strokin, Kto rukovodil NKVD, 249, 250, 378–80. 55. Gross, Revolution from Abroad, 29, 30. 56. Redlich, "Metropolitan Andrii Sheptytskyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian–Jewish Relations," 67. 57. Węgierski, Lwów pod okupacją sowiecką; Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 119. 58. "Task force": these groups were special mobile killing units composed of mainly of Security Police and Security Service personnel. They followed or sometimes accompanied advancing Wehrmacht troops. The group "C" among others subunits included Sonderkommandos 4a and 4b. 59. Cited in Kruglov, Sbornik dokumentov i materialov ob unichtozhenii natsistami evreev Ukrainy v 1941–1944 godakh, 26. 60. Leon Z., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Polish, Warsaw, Poland, May, 1996, segments 78–80. 61. The OUN‐B was a radical faction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalist, initially OUN‐revolutionary, then in popular parlance Bandera's faction. It was structured after the April 1940 split in the Organization. 62. Nachtigall: a Ukrainian military unit formed in the spring of 1941 from the members of the OUN‐B in Generalgouvernement. In June 1941, the unit was of a battalion size, staffed by Ukrainian enlisted men, while officers were Germans and Ukrainians. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 77, 86. 63. Węgierski, Lwów pod okupacją sowiecką 1939–1941, 5. 64. Żbikowski, "Wstęp," 8, 9. 65. Cited in Khonigsman, Katastrofa Evreistva Zapandnoi Ukrainy, 108–10. 66. Kurt L., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, New York, NY, USA, January 1997, tape 2, segment 25. 67. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 3rd ed. (1990 Armstrong, John A. 1990. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 3rd ed, Englewood, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Google Scholar]), 54, 55, note 12 on 54. 68. Pohl, "Ukrainische Hilfskräfte beim Mord an den Juden," 205–34; Pohl, Nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Ostgalizien 1941–1944, 67–71; see also Friedman, "The Destruction of the Jews of Lwów," 660–63. 69. Jones, Zydzi Lwowa w okresie okupacji, 47. 70. Cited in Kruglov, Sbornik dokumentov i materialov ob unichtozhenii natsistami evreev Ukrainy v 1941–1944 godakh, 27, 28. 71. Friedman, "The Destruction of the Jews of Lwów," 663; Redlich, "Metropolitan Sheptytskyi and Ukrainian–Jewish Relations," 68; cited in Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust, 177, note 33; Kruglov, Sbornik dokumentov i materialov ob unichtozhenii natsistami evreev Ukrainy v 1941–1944 godakh, 26, 27, 28; Khonigsman, Katastrofa Evreistva Zapandnoi Ukrainy, 109–14; Jones, Zydzi Lwowa w okresie okupacji, 47–50; Sandkühler, "Endlösung" in Galizien, 117, 118; Żbikowski, "Wstęp," 9. 72. Cited in Khonigsman, Katastrofa Evreistva Zapandnoi Ukrainy, 113 note. 73. Cited in Berkhoff and Carynnyk, "The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude Toward Germans and Jews," 152. 74. Cited in ibid., 154. 75. Cited in ibid., 170, 171. 76. Lozyns'kyi, Halychyna v rr. 1918–1920, 55. 77. Dilo (Lviv), 5 November 1918, 3. 78. Dilo (Lviv), 21 November 1918, 1. 79. Ibid. 80. Leszek A., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Polish, February 1997, Zakopane, Poland, tape 2, segments 54–56. 81. Kurt L., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, New York, NY, USA, January 1997, tape 2, segments 19–22. 82. Ibid., segment 24; in the same group with Rabbi Lewin, was Henryk Hescheles, the chief editor of Jewish daily Chwila. 83. Leon B., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, North Miami Beach, FL, USA, May 1997, tape 2, segments 41, 42. 84. Tamara B., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, Toronto, Canada, 24 April 2001, tape 2, segments 47–60. 85. Lusia H., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 May, 1996, segment 13. 86. Cited in Berkhoff and Carynnyk, "The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude Toward Germans and Jews," 154. 87. See Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 3rd ed. (1990 Armstrong, John A. 1990. Ukrainian Nationalism. , 3rd ed, Englewood, CO: Ukrainian Academic Press. [Google Scholar]), 57; Dallin, German Rule in Russia; Stojko, "Ukrainian National Aspiration and German Designs on Ukraine," 16. 88. Wolf L., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, in Englsih, May 1997, North Miami Beach, Florid, USA, tape 1, segment 11. 89. Wanda O., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Polish, June 1998, Warsaw, Poland, tape 2. 90. On Boryslav pogrom, see Weiss, ha‐Mashiah lo ba; Gross, Revolution from Abroad, 181; "Boryslaw," in Spector, The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust, 174–75; "Borislav," in The Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 4. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971, 1249. 91. Rusyns: a generic name for autochthonous population of the Carpathian region. The region of Boryslav‐Drohobych‐Stryi‐Skole comprises the ethno‐cultural territory of Boikovshchyna. By and large, Rusyns are associated with Ukrainians; this name has rather a historical relevance than ethnic. In the ethnic terms, Boiki is an indigeneously relevant name for the local population. 92. Gross, Revolution from Abroad, 181. 93. Opryshki is a local name for people's avengers, largely associated with the 18th‐century gangs of Oleksa Dovbush which operated in the Carpathian region. Their activities was traditionally aimed against Polish officials, Jewish merchants and money‐lenders. 94. Daniel H., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, July 1997, Poway, California, USA, tape 2, segments 47–52. 95. Charlotte H., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, June 1995, New York, NY, USA, tape 1, segments 14, 15, 17. 96. Anna D., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, February 1996, Brooklyn, NY, USA, tape 1, 2, segments 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 41, 42, 43. 97. Józef L., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording in Polish, September 1996, Wroclaw, Poland, tape 1, 2, segments 58, 62, 63, 64, 65. 98. Marion S., "Interview by Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation." Video recording, June 1995, Aventura, FL, USA, tape 2, segments 39, 41–44. 99. Cited in Kruglov, Sbornik dokumentov i materialov ob unichtozhenii natsistami evreev Ukrainy v 1941–1944 godakh, 318. 100. Endeks (Polish National Democrats): a nationalist Polish party, known for its totalitarian conception of Polish nation and ardent Antisemitism; Korporanci (members of youth fraternities): attacked Jews in the institutions of higher learning, and on the streets; they initiated bloody anti‐Jewish excesses. 101. Militia organized by the Slovak People's Party: 1938–1945. The Hlinka Guard were Slovakia's state police and willingly collaborated with the State and the Nazi regime. 102. An auxiliary order police, known by the popular name "Blue Police," derived from the colour of their uniform. 103. On Ukrainian and Jewish historiography with regard to collaboration, see "Round‐Table Discussion." In Aster and Potichnyj, Ukrainian–Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective, 479–512. 104. Rudling, "Theory and Practice," 169–73. 105. 14th infantry division of the armed SS forces: a Ukrainian military formation in the German armed forces in 1943–45. The formation of the division began in April 1943 out of Ukrainian volunteers. Only middle‐rank commission officers were Ukrainians, the division's command lay in the hands of German officers. In the beginning of 1944, two of its units participated in the punitive actions against Polish resistance fighters. The division suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Brody in July 1944. Then, reinforced by reserves, the division again saw actions in the fight against the Slovak National Uprising in October 1944. It was engaged in fighting the Yugoslavian partisan in the winter of 1945, and, at the end of the war, confronted the Red Army in Austria. Owing to the Vatican and other influential interventions, the men of the Division were spared from deportation to the USSR. In 1947, the former soldiers of SS "Galizien" were allowed emigration to Canada and Britain; see "Division Galizien/Dyvizia Halychyna." In Kohut et al., Historical Dictionary of Ukraine, 138–40. 106. Dmytryshyn, "The SS Division Galicia," 213. 107. Cited in Spector, "The Holocaust of Ukrainian Jews," 47. 108. Cited in Himka, "Ukrainian Collaboration," 172. Additional informationNotes on contributorsVladimir MelamedVladimir Melamed received his doctorate from the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine—Institute of Ukrainian Studies. He authored two books and a number of articles on the history of Jews and Jewish–Ukrainian relations in Galicia (western Ukraine). In the past he has worked as a senior researcher and historical content analyst with Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation in Los Angeles. In 2006, he held the Post‐Doctoral Shklar Research Fellowship in Ukrainian Studies at Harvard University—Ukrainian Research Institute. He is the Archivist and Historian at the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust and Visiting Scholar of Stanford University. Dr Melamed is currently working on a book, Galician Crossroads: Ukrainians and Jews in Galicia: 1918–1945.
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