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The politics of national education: values and aims of Israeli history curricula, 1956–1995

2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 39; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00220270600957420

1366-5839

Amos Hofman,

Oral History, Memory, Narrative Analysis

Abstract Jewish history is unique in the sense that it expands over a vast period of time and takes place in almost all places in the world. This creates a major potential for historical debates. The state of Israel, which views itself as the high‐point of Jewish national identity, has inherited these debates but attempted to find a way between them by creating a unified history curriculum for its state educational system. This attempt has failed, and on‐going 'history wars' between various interpretations of Jewish and Israeli history sometimes turn into fierce political battles between the political left and right, between secular and orthodox, and between sectors of different cultural origins. This study describes and analyses the four history curricula published since the foundation of the State of Israel in 1948, and discusses the social context which defined the values they were supposed to promote. The fundamental issue for history curricula writers was finding the correct balance between national (Jewish) and general (non‐Jewish) history. In the secular school system there has been a gradual rise in general history at the expense of Jewish history, while in the religious school system the process was the opposite. The significant differences between the curricula reflect today's deep‐seated rift between these sectors of Israeli‐Jewish society. Keywords: curriculum developmenthistoryhistory and politicsIsraelnational history Notes 1. See, e.g. Appleby et al. (1994 Appleby, J., Hunt, L. and Jacob, M. 1994. Telling the Truth about History, New York: Norton. [Google Scholar]), Linenthal and Engelhardt (1996 Linenthal, E. T. and Engelhardt, T., eds. 1996. History Wars: the Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past, New York: Henry Holt. [Google Scholar]), Moeller (1996 Moeller, R. G. 1996. War stories: the search for a usable past in the Federal Republic of Germany. 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In Making History: An Introduction to the History and Practice of a Discipline, Edited by: Lambert, P. and Schofield, P. 215–226. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar]). 2. Until the mid‐1970s elementary school included grades 1–8 (ages 6–13). The school reform of the 1970s created junior high schools comprising grades 7–9. Most history curricula refer to grades 6–9, i.e. from the last grade of the current elementary school to the end of junior high school. 3. Jewish history, from that point of view, has quite the opposite problem when compared to Canadian history (see Osborne 2003 Osborne, K. 2003. Teaching history in schools: a Canadian debate. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 35(5): 585–626. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]: 594–602). There is a saying, sometimes attributed to the Israeli statesman Shimon Peres, that 'Israel has too much history and Canada too much geography'. The history of Canada, as Osborne describes, suffers from a relatively short national tradition, therefore the very existence of a Canadian nation is sometimes questioned. Curriculum designers find it difficult to create a cohesive all‐Canadian national narrative from the English, French, and North American origins to present‐day Canada. One of the results is the neglect of the nation‐building narrative and concentration upon social history. 4. The term 'General history' is capitalized in this paper in order to distinguish it from Jewish history. 5. Such debates are now common in Europe, where national identity may conflict with the European identity (and its history) encouraged by supporters of the European Union. Another interesting example is the debate within the Arab world regarding a pan‐Arab national identity as opposed to the national identity of its separate political units (e.g. Egypt, Syria, etc.). See Halliday (2000 Halliday, F. 2000. Nation and Religion in the Middle East, London: Saqi Books. [Google Scholar]), Lewis (1994 Lewis, B. 1994. The Shaping of the Modern Middle East, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]: ch. 4, 1998 Lewis, B. 1998. The Multiple Identities of the Middle East, New York: Schoken Books. [Google Scholar]: chs. 5–‐6), and Owen (1992 Owen, R. 1992. State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, London: Routledge. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]: ch. 4). 6. Separate departments of Middle Eastern history have also been established in all Israeli universities. 7. The 1953 Education Law sought to unify the various semi‐political educational networks (or 'streams') which existed prior to the foundation of the State. These networks were usually associated with ideological and religious movements, sometimes even with political parties, which sought to define their Zionist mission in educational terms (Elboim‐Dror 1986 Elboim‐Dror, R. 1986. Jewish Education in Israel, Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zevi. [in Hebrew]. [Google Scholar]). The largest stream was the Workers' educational network (founded in 1923, comprising over 40% of schools in Israel by 1950), supported by several Zionist‐socialist parties, which at that time were the backbone of the Zionist movement. Competing with it was the General network (founded in the late 19th century, with ∼ 27% of schools in 1950), based on Zionist‐liberal values. The dissatisfaction of orthodox Zionists with the secular orientation of these networks led to the foundation of the Mizrahi educational stream, which defined Zionism in traditional religious terms, emphasizing the connection between national and religious renewal. It comprised ∼ 19% of schools in 1950. In addition there existed the Independent Ultra‐Orthodox network (∼ 8% of schools in 1950) and the Arab school network (6% of schools), both of which were non‐Zionist. See also note 16. 8. The expression 'People of Israel' has a dual meaning. Its usually refers to the entire Jewish people. Here, however, it can mean only the Jewish citizens of the State of Israel. 9. The Canaanties were a people inhabiting Canaan before its conquest by the People of Israel at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, thus making Canaan into 'Land of Israel'. Sometimes the term Canaanites means all ancient peoples inhabiting the eastern coast of the Mediterranean in Biblical times. 10. Bible studies are compulsory in all Israeli State schools in grades 2–12. There is a constant discussion about the relationship between its historical and literary aspects. 11. According to Biblical tradition the Tribes are the 12 basic ancient units of the People of Israel. The 12 tribes were each allotted a specific geographic area in the Land of Israel. 12. The reference here is to the period between 586–516 BCE, following the Assyrian conquest of Israel and the fall of the first Temple in Jerusalem. 13. The Torah. 14. A similar view is found in the work of the famous socialist thinker Hess (1918 Hess, M. 1918 [1862]. Rome and Jerusalem: A study in Jewish Nationalism, Edited by: Waxman, M. New York: Bloch. [Google Scholar]), Rome and Jerusalem, in which he stresses the triumph of Italian nationalism as an example for the Jews. In Jewish history, Hess is considered one of the founding fathers of Zionist ideology. 15. Hanuka is an 8‐day festival celebrated at the end of the 3rd month of the Jewish calendar (about December) to commemorate the re‐dedication of the Temple by the Hasmoneans (164 BCE). Hasmonean rule (167–137 BCE), so called because it was led by the Hasmonean family, was the result of a successful revolt of the Jews against the Helenistic dynasty which controlled the Land of Israel and attempted to Hellenize Jewish religious practice, especially by controlling the Temple in Jerusalem. 16. The legislation of the 1953 Education Act was achieved at the cost of providing a measure of curricular autonomy to certain sectors—especially to religious circles, which were suspicious of the secular orientation of the State at that time. The so‐called 'General State School System' was divided into Jewish and Arab sectors directly controlled by the Ministry of Education. The Arab history curriculum is similar to that for the General School System, but somewhat modified to include the history of Islam. The history of Zionism and anti‐semitism in modern times are fully included in Arab school curricula. The 'National‐Religious State System', on the other hand, operates by means of an autonomous educational council, using the general curriculum where appropriate, sometimes supplementing or even replacing it with materials expressing their religious attitudes (Zameret 1997 Zameret, Z. 1997. On a Narrow Bridge: The Construction of the Educational System during the Great Aliya, Sede Boker, , Israel: Ben Gurion Heritage Centre. [in Hebrew]. [Google Scholar]). 17. This is a reference to the return of the Jews from their Babylonian exile in the year 538 BCE. 18. I am not claiming, of course, that a history curriculum is the essential cause of the national‐religious, right‐wing messianism witnessed today in Israel. However, the influence of education must be taken into account when attempting to understand this phenomenon. The division between secular and orthodox Jews as well as that between Left and Right has very deep roots in Jewish history—which modern curricula cannot erase but, rather, seek to express. 19. The most prominent intellectual critics at the time were J. L. Talmon and Y. Leibowitz of the Hebrew University. Talmon, a historian, published several essays against political violence, concluding that 'force is not an answer to all problems' (e.g. Talmon 1975 Talmon, J. L. 1975. The Age of Violence, Tel Aviv: Am Oved. [in Hebrew]. [Google Scholar]: 143–183, 294–396). Leibowitz, a philosopher, condemned the occupation of Arab territories in the Six Day War, emphasizing that it will cause a moral decline of the army, and later of society in general (e.g. Leibowitz 1999 Leibowitz, Y. 1999. I Wanted to Ask You, Prof. Leibowitz, Jerusalem: Keter. [in Hebrew]. [Google Scholar]: 395–453. This is a collection of letters by the philosopher, published posthumously). 20. It is important to note that there is no emphasis upon specific 'Jewish' values—an expression so common among orthodox Jews in Israel today. 21. Jewish religious law and customs. 22. The Hebrew expression could also mean 'the common fate'. 23. From 1004 to 586 BCE when the Kingdom of Judea was over‐run by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon. 24. To date no new history curriculum has been published for the National‐Religious sector. 25. 586 BCE–70 CE. The building of the Second Temple was completed c. 515 BCE. 26. The sanctification of God through personal martyrdom. 27. An interesting example to this can be found in a Ministry of Education (1998 Ministry of Education. 1998. "Journey of an illegal immigrant". Available online at http://www1.snunit.k12.il/zion100/galili/maapil/, accessed 25 March 25 2005 [in Hebrew]. [Google Scholar]) internet site marking the centennial of Zionism. This is an interactive site, describing 'the journey of an illegal immigrant', a survivor of Auschwitz, seeking to rehabilitate his life following the Second World War. The survivor first returns to his pre‐war hometown and even finds a few relatives who like himself survived the Holocaust. He has to choose either between staying in Poland with his relatives or immigrating to Israel. Selecting the option 'staying in Poland' brings him to a dead end. 'For your information', the site determines, 'about two‐thirds of the Jews in Poland decided to leave, and only a third stayed. You choose to immigrate to Israel!' No other option is suggested to the survivor of the death camps. He must start his journey to Israel. The option of immigrating to any other country in Europe or America is not even mentioned. One may select only whether to escape Poland privately or together with an organized group. 28. It seems to me that social research will confirm that the motive to establish separate educational institutions of the Sephardic‐Orthodox party ('Shas'), whose supporters are Jews of North African origins (called 'Sephardic' because they carry with them traditions of the mediaeval Jewish diaspora in Spain), is not economic but cultural distress. Similarly, immigrants from the former Soviet Union also tend to establish separate schools side‐by‐side with the State system. 29. History as 'philosophy teaching by example', or 'philosophy based on experience' is a traditional definition of history, according to which the ruler dealing with the present must base his decisions upon past experience. The underlying premise of this concept of history (and the ruler's craft) is that there are no new situations in human history, and it is always possible to find historical precedents to any problem which the ruler might encounter. For a comprehensive discussion of this issue see the classic work by Pocock (1975 Pocock, J. G. A. 1975. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Google Scholar]: 3–80). 30. Michelet is quoted in French: 'Ainsi se fait une famille, une cite commune entre les vivants et les morts'. 31. It is interesting to compare the case of French national history described by Anderson to very similar phenomena in the newly‐created nation‐states of eastern Europe after the collapse of the Soviet Union. In several countries the inclusion or exclusion of social groups as part of the nation (or as foreign to it) is part of the redefinition of national identities. See, e.g. Ahonen's (2001 Ahonen, S. 2001. Politics of identity through history curriculum: narratives of the past for social exclusion—or inclusion?. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33(2): 179–194. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]: 181–183) description of the Estonian case—a new state which re‐invented its national narrative in order to exclude the Russians and denounce them as 'occupiers', while in the previous generation were perceived as part of 'the happy family of the Soviet peoples'. 32. A revolt in 1943 of Jews held in the Warsaw Ghetto, considered the largest and most heroic revolt of Jews against their Nazi oppressors during World War II, was suppressed only by burning down the entire ghetto. 33. Meged wrote his article following a survey about the new history textbooks in Israel published in the New York Times on 14 August 1999. 34. A research centre located in Jerusalem, focusing on Jewish and Israeli social and political thought. Politically it is identified with the Right; however it has published Hebrew translations of classical liberal thought. 35. The polite language of this manifesto should not be mistaken. It is quite obvious that the members of the Historical Society know very well that school books and curricula are not professional historical documents. The question was how far politicians would intervene in scholarly matters in order to force their points of view upon the study of history in schools. 36. The reference here is to Yosef Trumpeldor (1880–1920), an officer of the Russian army who lost an arm in the battle of Gallipoli (1915). Later, he immigrated to Israel and was killed while protecting a northern settlement from an attack of Arab brigands. It is said that his last words were 'No matter, it's good to die for our country'. The day of his death has been observed ever since, and the myth of his heroism in his final battle is considered an example of pure patriotism. 37. Yehoshua Hankin (1864–1945) immigrated to Israel in 1882 and devoted his life to the purchase of land from the Arabs. Many of the early Zionist settlements were built upon land which he purchased. He too is a mythical figure referred to a 'the redeemer of the Land'. 38. White differentiates between a 'deterministic' plot in which the first event determines those following it, and a 'teleological' plot in which the final event in the series determines the interpretation of those preceding it. Clearly, the Israeli history curricula belong to the second type.