Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Tourette syndrome attributed to frontal lobe dysfunction: Numerous etiologies involved

1991; Wiley; Volume: 47; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47

1097-4679

A. Gedye,

Neurology and Historical Studies

Journal of Clinical PsychologyVolume 47, Issue 2 p. 233-252 Neuropsychological Assessment Tourette syndrome attributed to frontal lobe dysfunction: Numerous etiologies involved A. Gedye, Corresponding Author A. Gedye Provincial Facility for Mentally Handicapped Adults New Westminster, British Columbia, CanadaMinistry of Social Services & Housing, 9 E. Columbia St., New Westminster, B.C. V3L 3V5 CanadaSearch for more papers by this author A. Gedye, Corresponding Author A. Gedye Provincial Facility for Mentally Handicapped Adults New Westminster, British Columbia, CanadaMinistry of Social Services & Housing, 9 E. Columbia St., New Westminster, B.C. V3L 3V5 CanadaSearch for more papers by this author First published: March 1991 https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199103)47:2 3.0.CO;2-NCitations: 13AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Abstract The etiology of Tourette Syndrome (TS) according to prevailing views is unknown; there is evidence for both familial and sporadic cases. The author theorizes that abnormal discharges in the frontal lobes comprise the "final common dysfunction" that results in numerous phenomena labelled Tourette syndrome. Facial, vocal, and other motor symptoms of TS are catalogued in parallel with facial, vocal, and body movements that occur during frontal lobe seizures. The variety of etiologies that cause frontal lobe seizures–when applied to TS–can account more readily for heterogeneity of clinical presentations, the numerous "dual diagnosis" cases, and differential response to medication than can a single-gene theory. References Abuzzahab, F. S., Sr., & Anderson, F. O. (1976). Current knowledge of the syndrome. In F. Abuzzahab, & F. Anderson (Eds.), Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome (Vol. 1, pp. 169–183). St. Paul, MN: Mason. American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition. Washington: Author. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition-Revised. Washington: Author. Araneta, E., Magen, J., Musci, M. N., Singer, P., & Vann, C. R. (1975). Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome symptom onset at age 35. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 5, 224–230. Baker, E. F. W. (1962). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome treated by bimedial frontal leucotomy. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 86, 746–747. Barabas, G. (1988). Tourette's syndrome: An overview. Pediatric Annals, 17, 391–393. Barabas, G., & Matthews, W. S. (1983). Coincident infantile autism and Tourette syndrome: A case report. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 4, 280–281. Barabas, G., Wardell, B., Sapiro, M., & Matthews, W. S. (1986). Coincident Down's and Tourette syndromes: Three case reports. Journal of Child Neurology, 1, 358–360. Barsky, P. (1967). A clinical variant of tic convulsif. Journal of Pediatrics, 71, 417–419. Baxter, L. R., Thompson, J. M., Schwartz, J. M., Guze, M. E., Phelps, M. E., Mazziotta, J. C., Selin, C. E., & Moss, L. (1987). Trazodone treatment response in obsessive-compulsive disorder – correlated with shifts in glucose metabolism in the caudate nuclei. Psychopathology, 20, 114–122. Bergen, D., Tanner, C. M., & Wilson, R. (1982). The electroencephalogram in Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 11, 382–385. Boone, K. B., Miller, B. L., Rosenberg, L., Durazo, A., McIntyre, H., & Well, M. (1988). Neuropsychological and behavioral abnormalities in an adolescent with frontal lobe seizures. Neurology, 38, 583–586. Bornstein, R. A., & Baker, G. B. (1988). Neuropsychological correlates of urinary amine metabolites in Tourette's syndrome. International Journal of Neuroscience, 42, 113–120. Brown, R. M., Crane, A. M., & Goldman, P. (1979). Regional distribution of monoamines in the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures of the rhesus monkey: Concentrations and in vivo synthesis rates. Brain Research, 168, 133–150. Buchanan, S. L., Valentine, J., & Powell, D. A. (1985). Autonomic responses are elicited by electrical stimulation of the medial but not lateral frontal cortex in rabbits. Behavioural Brain Research, 18, 51–62. Bunney, B. S., & DeReimer, S. (1982). Effect of clonidine on dopaminergic neuron activity in the substantia nigra: Possible indirect mediation by noradrenergic regulation of the serotonergic raphe system. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 99–104). New York: Raven Press. Burd, L., & Kerbeshian, J. (1987). Onset of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome before 1 year of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1066–1067. Butler, I. J., Koslow, S. H., SeifertJr., W. E., Caprioli, R. M., & Singer, H. S. (1979). Biogenic amine metabolism in Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 6, 37–39. Chase, T. N., Foster, N. L., Fedio, P., Brooks, R., Mansi, L., Kessler, R., & Di Chiro, G. (1984). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Studies with the fluorine-18-labeled fluordeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic method. Annals of Neurology, 15, Suppl 175. Chelune, G. J., Ferguson, W., Koon, R., & Dickey, T. O. (1986). Frontal lobe disinhibition in attention deficit disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 16, 221–234. Chodkiewicz, J. P., Vignal, J. P., Mann, M., Munari, C., Chauvel, P., & Talairach, J. (1988). Surgery for frontal lobe seizures: Ste. Anne series. Epilepsia, 29, 219. Cohen, D. J., Shaywitz, B. A., Young, G., Carbonari, C. M., Mathanson, J. S., Lieberman, D., Bowers, Jr., M. B., & Maas, J. W. (1979). Central biogenic amine metabolism in children with the syndrome of chronic multiple tics of Gilles de la Tourette. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 18, 320–341. Collacott, R. A., & Ismail, I. A. (1988). Tourettism in a patient with Down's syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 32, 163–166. Comings, D. E. (1987). A controlled study of Tourette syndrome. VII. Summary: A common genetic disorder causing disinhibition of the limbic system. American Journal of Human Genetics, 41, 839–866. Comings, D. E., & Comings, B. G. (1987a). A controlled study of Tourette syndrome. I. Attention-deficit disorder, learning disorders, and school problems. American Journal of Human Genetics, 41, 701–741. Comings, D. E., & Comings, B. E. (1987b). A controlled study of Tourette syndrome. IV. Obsessions, compulsions, and schizoid behaviors. American Journal of Human Genetics, 41, 782–893. Comings, D. E., & Comings, B. G. (1987c). A controlled study of Tourette syndrome. VI. Early development, sleep problems, allergies, and handedness. American Journal of Human Genetics, 41, 822–838. Crosley, C. J. (1979). Decreased serotoninergic activity in Tourette syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 5, 596–597. Delgado, J. M. R., & Livingston, R. B. (1948). Some respiratory, vascular and thermal responses to stimulation of orbital surface of frontal lobe. Journal of Neurophysiology 11, 39–55. Delgado Escueta, A. V., Enrile Bascal, F., & Treiman, D. M. (1982). Complex partial seizures on closed-circuit television and EEG: A study of 691 attacks in 79 patients. Annals of Neurology, 11, 292–300. Deupree, R. M. (1982). The muscles of voice and speech. In L. E. Travis (Ed.), Handbook of speech pathology and audiology (pp. 27–50). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Devinsky, O. (1983). Neuroanatomy of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: Possible midbrain involvement. Archives of Neurology, 40, 508–514. Druckman, R., & Chao, D. (1957). Laughter in epilepsy. Neurology, 7, 26–36. Ellison, R. M. (1964). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Medical Journal of Australia, 1, 153–155. Emson, P. C., & Koob, G. F. (1978). The origin and distribution of dopamine-containing afferents to the rat frontal cortex. Brain Research, 142, 249–267. Enoch, M. D., Trethowan, W. H., & Barker, J. C. (1967). Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. In M. D. Enoch, W. H. Trethowan & J. C. Barker (Eds.). Some uncommon psychiatric syndromes (pp. 85–97). Bristol: John Wright. Ernberg, G. (1988). Pharmacologic therapy of tics in childhood. Pediatric Annals, 17, 395–404. Fahn, S. (1982a). The clinical spectrum of motor tics. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 341–344). New York: Raven Press. Fahn, S., (1982b). A case of post-traumatic tic syndrome. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 349–350). New York: Raven Press. Feild, J. R., Corbin, K. B., Goldstein, N. P., & Klass, D. W. (1966). Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Epilepsia, 7, 453–462. Gedye, A. (1989a). Extreme self-injury attributed to frontal lobe seizures. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 94, 20–26. Gedye, A. (1989b). Episodic rage and aggression attributed to frontal lobe seizures. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 33, 369–379. Gedye, A. (1990). Dietary increase in serotonin reduces self-injurious behaviour in a Down's syndrome adult. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 34, 195–203. Gedye, A. (1991). Anatomy of self-injurious, stereotypic and aggressive movements: Evidence for involuntary explanation. Manuscript submitted for publication. Gedye, A. (in press). Frontal lobe seizures in autism. Medical Hypotheses. Geier, S., Bancaud, J., Talairach, A., Bonis, A., Enjelvin, M., & Hossard-Bouchard, H. (1976). Automatisms during frontal lobe epileptic seizures. Brain, 99, 447–458. Geier, S., Bancaud, J., Talairach, J., Bonis, A., Szikla, G., & Enjelvin, M. (1977). The seizures of frontal lobe epilepsy: A study of clinical manifestations. Neurology, 27, 951–958. Gerbner, M. (1973). Study on the functional mechanisms of the dorsolateral frontal lobe cortex. In K. H. Pribram & A. R. Luria (Eds.), Psychophysiology of the frontal lobes (pp. 237–252). New York: Academic Press. Glaze, D. G., Frost, J. D., & Jankovic, J. (1983). Sleep in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: Disorder of arousal. Neurology, 33, 586–592. Golden, G. S., & Greenhill, L. (1981). Tourette syndrome in mentally retarded children. Mental Retardation, 19, 17–19. Goldman, J. J. (1988). Tourette syndrome in severely behavior disordered mentally retarded children. Psychiatric Quarterly, 59, 73–78. Goldman-Rakic, P. S., Gallagher, M. S., Lidow, S., & Rakic, P. (1988). Neurotransmitter receptors in prefrontal cortex. Epilepsia, 29, 214. Gonce, M., & Barbeau, A. (1977). Seven cases of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: Partial relief with clonazepam. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 4, 279–283. Grad, L. R., Pelcovitz, D., Olson, M., Matthew, M., & Grad, G. J. (1987). Obsessive-compulsive symptomatology in children with Tourette's syndrome. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 69–73. Hurley-Guis, K. M., & Neasfey, E. J. (1986). The medial frontal cortex and gastric motility: Microstimulation results and their possible significance for the overall pattern of organization of rat frontal and parietal cortex. Brain Research, 365, 241–248. Jacobs, B. L., Trulson, M. E., Heym, J., & Steinfels, G. F. (1982). On the role of CNS serotonin in the motor abnormalities of Tourette syndrome: Behavioral and single-unit studies, In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 93–98). New York: Raven Press. Kano, Y., Ohta, M., & Nagai, Y. (1987). Two case reports of autistic boys developing Tourette's disorder: Indications of improvement? Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 937. Karlinsky, H., Sandor, P., Berg, J. M., Moldolfsky, H., & Crawford, E. (1986). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in Down's syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 601–604. Kerbeshian, J., Burd, L., & Martsolf, J. T. (1984). Fragile X syndrome associated with Tourette symptomatology in a male with moderate mental retardation and autism. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 5, 201–203. Khanna, S. (1988). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Is there a frontal lobe dysfunction? Biological Psychiatry, 24, 602–613. Kluin, A., Abou-Khalil, B., & Hood, T. (1988). Speech arrest produced by stimulation of the frontal cortical eye field. Neurology, 38, Suppl 173. Krumholz, A., Singer, H. S., Niedermeyer, E., Burnite, R., & Harris, K. (1983). Electrophysiological studies in Tourette's syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 14, 638–641. Kurlan, R., Behr, J., Medved, L., Shoulson, I., Pauls, D., & Kidd, K. K. (1987). Severity of Tourette's syndrome in one large kindred. Archives of Neurology, 44, 268–269. Kurlan, R., Lichter, D., & Hewitt, D. (1989). Sensory tics in Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 39, 731–734. Lakke, J. P. W. F., & Wilmink, J. T. (1985). A case of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome with midbrain involvement. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 48, 1293–1296. Leckman, J. F., Ort, S., Caruso, K. A., Anderson, G. M., Riddle, M. A., & Cohen, D. J. (1986). Rebound phenomena in Tourette's syndrome after abrupt withdrawal of Clonidine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 1168–1176. Lees, A. J. (1985). Tics and related disorders. New York: Churchill Livingstone. Lhermitte, F., Pillon, B., & Serdaru, M. (1986). Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part I: Imitation and utilization behavior: A neuropsychological study of 75 patients. Annals of Neurology, 19, 326–334. Loiseau, A., Cohadon, F., & Cohadon, S. (1971). Gelastic epilepsy: A review and report of five cases. Epilepsia, 12, 313–323. Lou, H. C., Henriksen, P., Bruhn, P., & Borner, H. (1987). Attention deficit disorder as a frontal lobe disconnection syndrome involving the head of the caudate nucleus. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 7, Suppl. 399. Lubin, H., & Gerlach, J. (1988). Behavioural effects of dopamine D-1 and D-2 receptor agonists in monkeys previously treated with Haloperidol. European Journal of Pharmacology, 153, 239–245. Ludwig, B., Marsan, C. A., & Van Buren, J. (1975). Cerebral seizures of probable orbitalfrontal origin. Epilepsia, 16, 141–158. Luria, A. R. (1973). The frontal lobes and the regulation of behavior. In K. H. Pribram & A. R. Luria (Eds.), Psychophysiology of the frontal lobes (pp. 3–26). New York: Academic Press. Marneros, A. (1983). Adult onset of Tourette's syndrome: A case report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 924–925. Mattes, J. A. (1980). The role of frontal lobe dysfunction in childhood hyperkinesis. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 21, 358–369. Matthews, K. L. (1981). Familial Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome associated with tuberous sclerosis. Texas Medicine, 77, 46–49. Matthews, W. (1988). Attention deficits and learning disabilities in children with Tourette's syndrome. Pediatric Annals, 17, 410–416. Mazars, G. (1970). Criteria for identifying cingulate epilepsies. Epilepsia, 11, 41–47. McCall, R. B., Patel, B. N., & Harris, L. T. (1987). Effects of serotonin-1 and serotonin-2 receptor agonists and antagonists on blood pressure, heart rate and sympathetic nerve activity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 242, 1152–1159. Merz, B. (1988). Tourette's syndrome hypothesis creates controversy among geneticists. Journal of American Medical Association, 260, 2619. Mesulam, M. M. (1986). Frontal cortex and behavior. Annals of Neurology, 19, 320–325. Mesulam, M. M., & Petersen, R. C. (1987). Treatment of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: Eight-year, practice-based experience in a predominantly adult population. Neurology, 37, 1828–1833. Meyer, B. C., & Rose, D. (1986). Single case study: Remarks on the etiology of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 387–396. Morrison, J. H., Lewis, D. A., Campbell, M. J., & Foote, S. L. (1988). Biochemical anatomy of monoaminergic and peptidergic systems in the primate frontal lobe. Epilepsia, 29, 214. Munari, C., Giallonardo, A. T., & Bancaud, J. (1988). The problems of orbitofrontal-anterior temporal seizures versus anterior temporal lobe seizures. Epliepsia, 29, 208. Munari, C., Stoffels, C., Bossi, L., Bonis, A., Talairach, J., & Bancaud, J. (1981). Automatic activities during frontal and temporal lobe seizures: Are they the same? Advances in Epileptology: XIIth Epilepsy International Symposium (pp. 287–291). New York: Raven Press. Nee, L. E., Caine, E. D., Polinsky, R. J., Eldridge, R., & Ebert, M. (1980). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Clinical and family study of 50 cases. Annals of Neurology, 7, 41–49. Obeso, J. A., Rothwell, J. C., & Marsden, C. D. (1982). The neurophysiology of Tourette syndrome. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 105–114). New York: Raven Press. Pauls, D. L., Hurst, C. R., Kruger, S. D., Leckman, J. F., Kidd, K. K., & Cohen, D. J. (1986). Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 1177–1179. Pauls, D. L., & Leckman, J. F. (1986). The inheritance of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome and associated behaviors: Evidence for autosomal dominant transmission. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 993–997. Pazos, A., Probst, A., & Palacios, J. M. (1987a). Serotonin receptors in the human brain-III. Autoradiographic mapping of serotonin-1 receptors. Neuroscience, 21, 97–122. Pazos, A., Probst, A., & Palacios, J. M. (1987b). Serontonin receptors in the human brain-IV. Autoradiographic mapping of serotonin-2 receptors. Neuroscience, 21, 123–139. Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and brain-mechanisms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Petroutka, S. J., & Snyder, S. H. (1979). Multiple serotonin receptors: Differential binding of [3H]5-hydroxytryptamine, [3H]lysergic acid diethylamide and [3H]spiroperidol. Molecular Pharmacology, 16, 687–699. Porter, R. J. (1988). New and promising drugs in development: Clinical evaluation for "drug-resistant partial seizures."︁ Epilepsia, 29, 218. Quesney, L. F., Kreiger, C., Leitner, C., Gloor, P., & Olivier, A. (1984). Frontal lobe epilepsy: Clinical and electrographic presentation. Advances in Epileptology: XVth Epilepsy International Symposium (pp. 503–508). New York: Raven Press. Rapoport, J. L. (1989). The biology of obsessions and compulsions. Scientific American, 260, 83–89. Rasmussen, T. (1975). Surgery of frontal lobe epilepsy. In D. P. Purpura, J. K. Penry, & R. D. Walter (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 8, pp. 197–205). New York: Raven Press. RichardsonJr., E. P. (1982). Neuropathological studies of Tourette syndrome. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 83–87). New York: Raven Press. Riddle, M. A., Leckman, J. F., Anderson, G. M., Ort, S. I., Hardin, M. T., Stevenson, J., & Cohen, D. J. (1988). Tourette's syndrome: Clinical and neurochemical correlates. Journal of American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 409–412. Rougier, A. (1988). Prognosis factors in surgery of frontal lobe epilepsies. Epilepsia, 29, 219. Russell, J. E., & Gedye, A. (1989). Self-abuse, regurgitation, and antiemetics. Lancet, i, 225–226. Sacks, O. W. (1982). Acquired Tourettism in adult life. In A. J. Friedhoff & T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 89–92). New York: Raven Press. Saint-Hilaire, J. M., Giard, M., Veilluix, F., Benier, G., Rouleau, O., Mercier, M., Bouvier, G., & Turmel, A. (1988b). Frontal compared to temporal lobe epileptic manifestations: Study with depth electrodes. Epilepsia, 29, 209. Saint-Hilaire, J. M., Neilleux, F., Glard, M., Bernier, G., Rouleau, O., Bouvier, G., Mercier, M., & Turmel, A. (1988a). Frontal lobe epileptic manifestations studied with depth electrodes. Epilepsia, 29, 207. Sandyk, R. (1988). A case of Tourette's syndrome with midbrain involvement. International Journal of Neuroscience, 43, 171–175. Sandyk, R. (1989a). Abnormal opiate receptor functions in Tourette's syndrome. International Journal of Neuroscience, 44, 209–214. Sandyk, R. (1989b). Dopaminergic supersensitivity factors in Tourette's syndrome: A hypothesis. International Journal of Neuroscience, 44, 169–174. Sandyk, R., & Bamford, C. R. (1988). Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome associated with chronic schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuroscience, 41, 83–86. Seignot, J. N. (1976). A case of Gilles de la Tourette's disease after 10 years' treatment with Haloperidol. In F. Abuzzahab & F. Anderson (Eds.), Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome (Vol. 1, pp. 159–162). St. Paul, MN: Mason. Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E. S., Bruun, R. D., & Sweet, R. D. (1978). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. New York: Raven Press. Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E., & Wayne, H. L. (1973). The symptomatology and diagnosis of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 12, 702–723. Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E. S., Young, J. G., & Feinberg, T. E. (1988). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome ( 2nd ed.). New York: Raven Press. Simon, H., Scatton, B., & Le Moal, M. (1980). Dopaminergic A10 neurones are involved in cognitive functions. Nature, 286, 150–151. Singer, H. S., Pepple, J. M., Ramage, A. L., & Butler, I. J. (1978). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Further studies and thoughts. Annals of Neurology, 4, 21–25. Spencer, S. S., Spencer, D. D., Williamson, P. D., & Mattson, R. H. (1983). Sexual automatisms in complex partial seizures. Neurology, 33, 527–533. Stahl, S. M., & Berger, P. A. (1980). Physostigmine in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 302, 298. Stuss, D. T., & Benson, D. F. (1983). Frontal lobe lesions and behavior. In A. Kertesz (Ed.), Localization in neuropsychology (pp. 429–454). New York: Academic Press. Stuss, D. T., & Benson, D. F. (1986). The frontal lobes. New York: Raven Press. Sutherland, R. J., Kolb, B., Schoel, W. M., Whishaw, I. Q., & Davies, D. (1982). Neuropsychological assessment of children and adults with Tourette syndrome: A comparison with learning disabilities and schizophrenia. In A. J. Friedhoff and T. N. Chase (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (Vol. 35, pp. 311–321). New York: Raven Press. Sutula, T., & Hobbs, W. R. (1983). Senile-onset vocal and motor tics. Archives of Neurology, 40, 825–826. Sverd, J., Curley, A. D., Jandorf, L., & Volkersz, L. (1988). Behavior disorder and attention deficits in boys with Tourette syndrome. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 413–417. Tharp, B. R. (1972). Orbital frontal seizures, a unique electroencephalographic and clinical syndrome. Epilepsia, 13, 627–642. Van Woert, M. H. (1981). Cited in A. K. Shapiro & E. Shapiro, The treatment and etiology of tics and Tourette syndrome. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 22, 193–205. Van Woert, M. H., Yip, L. C., & Balis, M. E. (1977). Purine phosphoribosyltransferase in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 296, 210–212. Vieregge, P., Schafer, C., & Jorg, J. (1988). Concordant Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in monozygotic twins: A clinical, neurophysiological and CT study. Journal of Neurology, 235, 366–367. Wada, J. A. (1988). Nocturnal recurrence of brief, intensely affective vocal and facial expression with powerful bimanual, bipedal, axial, and pelvic activity with rapid recovery as manifestations of mesial frontal lobe seizure. Epilepsia, 29, 209. Wada, J. A., & Purves, S. J. (1984). Oral and bi-manual activity as ictal manifestations of frontal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 25, 668. Waterman, K., Purves, S. J., Kosaka, B., Strauss, E., & Wada, J. A. (1987). An epileptic syndrome caused by mesial frontal lobe seizures foci. Neurology, 37, 577–582. Weiser, H. G. (1988). Differentiating frontal from temporal lobe seizures. Epilepsia, 29, 208. Williamson, P. D. (1988). Frontal lobe seizures: Problems with diagnosis and localizations. Epilepsia, 29, 207. Williamson, P. D., Spencer, D. D., Spencer, S. S., Novelly, R. A., & Mattson, R. H. (1985). Complex partial seizures of frontal lobe origin. Annals of Neurology, 18, 497–504. Wolhfart, G., Ingvar, D. H., & Hellberg, A. M. (1961). Compulsory shouting (Benedek's Klazomania) associated with oculogyric spasm in chronic epidemic encephalitis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 36, 369–377. World Health Organization. (1977). Manual of the International Statistical Classifications of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death Vol. 1, Ninth Revision. Geneva: World Health Organization. Citing Literature Volume47, Issue2March 1991Pages 233-252 ReferencesRelatedInformation