Race: America’s Grand Challenge
2016; University of Chicago Press; Volume: 7; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1086/686296
ISSN2334-2315
Autores Tópico(s)Australian History and Society
ResumoPrevious articleNext article FreeRace: America's Grand ChallengeLarry E. DavisLarry E. DavisUniversity of Pittsburgh Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreThis invited article is based on the 2016 Presidential Plenary Lecture presented by Dr. Larry E. Davis at the 20th Annual Conference of the Society for Social Work and Research in Washington, DC. The annual Presidential Plenary Lecture highlights distinguished scholars and leaders whose work has impacted public policy, research methods, or social work practice.Good evening my colleagues and friends. Before beginning, I want to thank the Society for Social Work Research for inviting me to speak. It is more than a pleasure and an honor to be afforded the opportunity to address you this evening. I have thought a great deal about what I might say to you. I realize that this is a once in a life time opportunity—one which is unlikely to present itself again. So, I wanted to say something that mattered.I have spent my entire life studying, reading, and thinking about a single topic: race. Tonight, I will discuss that topic with you as it pertains to us as social work researchers.It has been said that America's original sin is that of slavery and its companion racism. However, other racial problems such as racial terrorism, discrimination, and bias have been part of our society's history since before America was America. The question of "What to do" about people of color has forever been an American dilemma. In particular, what to do with or about Native Americans, ex-slaves, and Hispanics have been perennial questions facing our country. Racism has consistently challenged our country's conceptions of itself as a free and just society, and there is little doubt that racism has been—and continues to be—America's grand challenge.In today's world, social media have served to pull back the curtain on the depth and pervasiveness of the race problem in America. Without social media, most of us would be unaware of the many recent unjustifiable police shootings as well as other acts of abuse and disrespect. Through its seeming omnipresence, today's social media has brought greater transparency and broader national outrage to injustices that previously had gone unacknowledged. I have studied race virtually all of my professional life (and thought about race since childhood) and felt I understood racial issues reasonably well; but, I stand before you tonight amazed at the depth, frequency, and pervasiveness of incidents of racism, racial conflicts, and acts of injustice taking place in our society.I am a Yankee from Michigan and have always viewed the most egregious forms of racism as foremost a Southern phenomenon. I was wrong, as one of my friends told me. It appears that the current situation is still as what Malcolm X (1964) described more than 50 years ago: "As long as you [are] south of the Canadian border, you [are] South." Perhaps that description also captures how Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. felt when he marched into Cicero, Illinois in 1966. He said "I have seen many demonstrations in the South, but I have never seen anything so hostile and so hateful as I've seen here today." It is noteworthy that one of Dr. King's demands to the city of Chicago in 1966 was to create a citizens' review board to deal with the "grievances against police brutality and false arrests or stops and seizures." But, here we are, 50 years later, experiencing the same reality and making essentially the same demands.Not since the struggle for civil rights and the violence that accompanied it have we seen our society so torn by racial strife. This is perhaps not surprising because we have seen many of the gains of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement all but reversed:• The 1965 Voting Rights Act is now under siege.• Public schools have re-segregated, returning to the low levels of integration last seen in 1960 (Hannah-Jones, 2014).• Today's high-school completion rate for Native Americans is only 67%, for Hispanics it is 73%, and for Blacks it is 69%—all well below the 86% high-school completion rate of White students (Stetser & Stillwell, 2014).• The vast majority of Black and Brown people still live in segregated neighborhoods and barrios (Logan & Stults, 2011).• The mortality rate for Black infants is more than twice that of White infants (Mathews, MacDorman, &Thoma, 2015).• Blacks have a lower life expectancy than all other racial/ethnic groups—some 4 to 6 years less than that of Whites (Kaiser Foundation, 2016).• Young adult Native Americans have the highest suicide rates of all racial/ethnic groups in the United States (Jiang, Mitran, Miniño, & Ni, 2015).• Black women, in particular, have elevated risk for poor health outcomes:○ Black women have an estimated rate of new HIV infections that is 20 times that of White women (CDC, 2015b).○ A Black woman who is given a diagnosis of breast cancer is 42% more likely to die from the disease than a White woman (American Cancer Society, 2015).The earnings gap between persons of color and Whites remains embarrassingly unfair.• For every $1 of wealth held by a typical White household, the average Latino/Latina household has only 7 cents and the average Black household has just 6 cents (Taylor, Kochhar, Fry, Velasco, & Motel, 2011).• Even more shocking, as compared with only 13% of Whites, some 33% of Blacks and 28% of Latinos have either no net worth or a negative net worth (Taylor et al., 2011).• More than one-quarter of Native Americans (28%) live in poverty—the highest rate of any racial/ethnic group (Sarche & Spicer, 2008).• Brown and Black people occupy 60% of the prison cells in this country, yet they make up only 29% of the total population (Sakala, 2014).• The odds are that a Black boy born today has a 33% chance—or 1 in 3 odds—of serving time in jail or prison (Sentencing Project, 2013).Perhaps the most unconscionable demographic is the homicide rate for Black men. At present, 5,000 to 8,000 Black males are murdered in America every year (Silver, 2015). Noteworthy is the fact that 7,000 Black men were killed during the entire 13 years of the Vietnam War (American War Library, 1988). In other words, Black men have an annual murder rate equivalent to the total number of Black troops who died during the Vietnam War, but the Black community suffers this loss of Black men every year—and has suffered this loss every year for the past 40 years! Although the vast majority of Blacks killed in this country are shot during armed conflicts with others, 32% of the Black people killed by police in 2015 were unarmed (Swaine, Laughland, & Lartey, 2015).Clearly, for far too long, race has been America's postponed grand challenge! For far too long, the problem of race has been put on the back burner—always waiting for a war to end, a recession to subside, or a new president to be elected. For far too long, our society has elected to ignore the long standing elephant in the room — racial injustice.I believe that in our efforts to be inclusive, social work professionals have lost our way with regards to the issue of race and racism. For some time now, individuals of all racial and ethnic groups have too often been engaged in discussions focusing on celebrating differences and diversity. I believe these discussions have served to avert our attention from the more difficult—and more challenging— conversations on race and racism, diverting efforts from the action needed to move us toward a more racially just society. Indeed, discussions focusing on diversity might actually be serving to diffuse truly useful discussion on any of the groups that the term diversity is meant to encompass.Meaningful discussions on topics of race get lost in the more comfortable and less anxiety-arousing discussion of diversity. Celebrating diversity is usually a feel-good topic, a way to acknowledge cultural differences that do not carry a great deal of emotion. At the same time, discussion of diversity largely serves to circumvent historical and present-day injustices. In addition, because of diversity's broad reference to so many groups and issues, talking about and focusing on diversity diffuses our ability to hone in on problems with any specificity. It has been argued that the term diversity has become so watered down that diversity can be anything from a code word for Black people to a profit imperative. Indeed, one study showed that many Millennials understand diversity to mean an individual's unique culture and perspective (Smith & Turner, 2015). By contrast, a discussion on race is often not so vague and not such a feel-good discussion. Instead, a discussion on race draws attention to ongoing problems of bias and inequality—especially our own bias and prejudice—which is clearly a more emotional and painful discussion.Diversity celebrations and diversity programs have not proven to be helpful for analyzing racism or for developing effective policy recommendations. A pioneering study conducted by sociologists at University of California-Berkeley, Harvard University, and University of Minnesota found that corporate diversity training programs geared to counteract managerial bias were not very effective for moving either White women or people of color into management positions, and these programs actually produced a 7% decrease in Black women's odds of becoming managers (Kalov, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006). Other research has found that home ownership programs using the rubric of "diversity" failed to alleviate the displacement of low-income renters—mostly Black and Latino/Latina—who were forced out of their apartments by condominium conversions.I am not suggesting that we completely abandon our discussions about diversity nor forsake our efforts to celebrate our differences because I do think these activities have value: I think we should do both. Nevertheless, foremost, I am suggesting that we spend a great deal more time talking specifically about race and racial disparities.Let's face it, the heart of racial conflicts in America is not the different foods we eat nor our varying cultural styles. To my knowledge, no one in America has been beaten or shot for eating the "wrong" ethnic food. Rather, the fundamental sources of our country's racial problems are the racial disparities in jobs, housing, education, incomes, and wealth as well as the ways in which we are treated as individuals in our larger society. Celebrating our differences—such as you bring spaghetti, someone else brings tacos, and I bring sweet potato pie—can be fun momentarily but such exchanges rarely force us to meaningfully confront how our lives as Whites and non-Whites are so disparate in the ways that really matter. A similar argument can be made for gender: women by and large do not have problems with men being of a different gender, but women do have a problem with the male-female disparities in life opportunities. In addition, women have grown to understand that the best way to create greater equity is to point out gender disparities—whenever and wherever they are found—by calling specific attention to inequities, gathering data to document injustice, and proposing specific changes needed to ameliorate those disparities.We certainly do celebrate diversity of gender, and we certainly should celebrate racial and ethnic diversity, but I feel certain that we are unlikely as a society to celebrate our way to social and economic justice. Hence, at this juncture of our racial history, we might do well to replace the bumper sticker that says "Celebrate Diversity" with one that says "Challenge Disparities." If we truly want greater racial harmony and justice, let us talk more about how we can go about reducing racial disparities rather than merely celebrating our relatively insignificant differences.In light of this need for significant dialogue and meaningful change, I propose that we include race more prominently as an area of focus in virtually all of our research efforts. However, I am suggesting that we do so not as an add-on or supplement, but as a major focus and major component to the project undertaken. I am advocating that we cease to think of race as an afterthought—the last variable included in the regression model. We might begin to apply the approach used by Pittsburgh Steelers' owner Art Rooney regarding minority hiring. He did not tell his managers that they must hire minorities, but instead he has asked them to state why they had not hired any minorities, if such was the case.We might begin to ask a similar question of ourselves regarding research. If our research project includes and affects significant numbers of non-Whites, why do we not more forthrightly address race in our research endeavors? With respect to addressing Black disadvantage, evidence suggests that researchers have retreated from looking at racism and that other terms and theories are often more popular. For example, explanations for Black disadvantage such as social class, morality, family structure, and the lack of a work ethic or the absence of grit are commonly used. However the research on racial inequality overwhelming supports the idea that these explanations are identifiable symptoms, and racism itself is the crucial underlying factor and the primary cause of Black disadvantage (Thomas, 2000).For too many years, I have witnessed research projects undertaken in which many, if not most or even all, of the participants were people of color, but race and ethnicity are barely mentioned, if at all. This avoidance discussing race must change. It is a grave injustice to those who are being studied because race inevitably plays a major role in whatever aspect of their lives is being assessed. I have sometimes felt that we, as social work researchers, are at risk of losing our significance in our haste to find significance levels. Therefore, let us work to ensure that social workers are not viewed as just another group of uncaring social scientists, but rather as a group whose research is committed to bringing about social justice.It is my goal tonight to issue a call to action in what is clearly a struggle in which we should be major players. Social work researchers are the best positioned of any researchers in America to make enormous contributions to efforts to the ameliorate racism in America. I say ameliorate because it is a goal without a goal post. We are very unlikely to eliminate racial bias and discrimination in the near future because the motivation to take advantage of others seems to be universally hard-wired into humans. The motivation to exploit seems to be present in every group and every generation throughout the world. Combatting this motivation to exploit will likely forever require our sustained and ever-present vigilance. Nevertheless, I do believe that social work researchers are the best positioned of all social science researchers to take on America's defining social problem—race. Why do I say this?First, as a group, social work researchers are the most racially diverse of any group of social science researchers. This racial diversity is also true for the students we teach. As such, our racial diversity gives us a greater intuitive, experiential, and factual understanding of the racially diverse populations we study.Second, our practicum sites place social workers in communities that are racially diverse, enabling us to work in environments with greater racial diversity than any other group of professionals. We are thereby provided with greater access and legitimacy to interact with racially diverse groups. In short, we have more "boots on the ground" in communities of color than any other group of researchers.Third, I say that we are best suited to address America's legacy of racism because there is virtually no social problem that people of color in America experience which our profession does not in some way address—be it health, education, child welfare, families, the elderly, poverty, or economic disparities. Therefore, I challenge social work researchers to take a leading role in bringing forth a more racially just and equitable America.However, our efforts would benefit greatly from a few changes on our part. First, we need to do a better job of educating our doctoral students about race and racism. Indeed, I have always thought it strange that our PhD graduates—most of whom will invariably be required to teach courses that include content on race—are not required to learn much about race at the PhD level. This anomaly has always seemed to me a bit like failing to teach medical students about the heart but expecting them to somehow know how to treat patients with heart problems when they get in to practice. Often, it appears that our doctoral graduates are teaching about race from what they learned as undergraduates or master's students.Second, taking on the challenge of creating a more racially just and equitable America will require that we broaden our notion of who should study race. Resolving race-related problems should not be viewed as the sole purview of non-Whites. Racism is an American problem, not just a Black and Brown problem. We should encourage our colleagues to get involved in addressing race in all of their research efforts. However, I do believe that those who study racial groups other than their own should enlist the support of colleagues who belong to the racial group being studied. Obviously, this second suggestion will require greater working collaboration on projects between non-White and White scholars, which is not a bad thing in and of itself. Moreover, it seems reasonable that the racial composition of our research teams should reflect the society we increasingly live in.Finally, our research should identify greater implications for impacting social policy. That is, we must begin to think about influencing racial justice via social policy. We have often failed to recognize that influencing social policy is central to our mission as social work researchers. With this in mind, we must design and plan our studies with the goal of more adequately influencing racial aspects of social policy.This evening, I challenge us as social work researchers to address head-on America's long postponed racial Grand Challenge and to do so as a committed group of social workers. Let us never again be misdirected by the use racial euphemisms. Let us never again be afraid to use the word race when that is what we really mean to say. Let us never again think of race as a supplement to our efforts, because so often it is race that is at the heart of the problem we are attempting to address.In the words of activist, journalist, and sociologist Ida B. Wells, who was born in slavery, "The way to right wrongs is to shine the light of truth upon them" (as cited in McMurry, 1998). As social work researchers, we have the capacity to shed more light on America's original Grand Challenge than any other group. All we need is the will!NotesDr. Larry E. Davis is the dean of the School of Social Work at the University of Pittsburgh, where he is the Donald M. Henderson Professor. He also serves as the director of the University's Center on Race and Social Problems.Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to Dr. Larry E. Davis, School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, 2117 Cathedral of Learning, Pittsburgh, PA 15260 or via e-mail to [email protected]ReferencesAmerican Cancer Society. (2015). Breast cancer facts & figures 2015-2016. Atlanta, GA. Author. Retrieved from http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@research/documents/document/acspc-046381.pdfFirst citation in articleGoogle ScholarAmerican War Library. (1988). Vietnam War casualties by race, ethnicity and natl origin. Author. 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