The Emerging Threat? South Africa's Extreme Right
2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/095465590884368
ISSN1556-1836
Autores Tópico(s)Historical and Contemporary Political Dynamics
ResumoAbstract In the run-up to South Africa's first non-racial election in 1994, extremist right-wing organizations, and their sympathizers in the state security forces, posed a real danger to the country's future democratic order. After 1994, violent, right-wing extremist activities virtually dissipated. However, during a single night in late 2002, eight bomb blasts rocked Soweto, South Africa's largest black township. An unknown organization, Boeremag (Boer force/power), claimed responsibility for the bombings. Some two dozen alleged Boeremag members, including serving military officers, were subsequently arrested and charged with terrorism-related offenses. The Boeremag makes an interesting case study of how the extreme white right in South Africa mixes politics and religion, and seeks to exploit popular grievances to garner support for the creation of a secessionist Afrikaner state. The South African white right does not have the resources, capacity, or support to successfully execute a coup d'état. The Boeremag serves as a reminder, however, that the extreme right can create instability and destruction on a significant scale in South Africa. Notes 1 J. Kane-Berman (ed.), South Africa Survey 2002/03 (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations 2003) p.3. 2 M. Schönteich and H. Boshoff, “Volk, Faith and Fatherland. The Security Threat Posed by the White Right,” ISS Monograph Series 81 (March 2003), p.28. 3 J. Van Rooyen, Hard Right. The New White Power in South Africa (London: I B Tauris Publishers 1994) pp.2–3. 4 H. Zille, “The Right Wing in South African Politics,” in P. L. Berger and B. Godsell (eds.), A Future South Africa. Visions, Strategies and Realities (Cape Town: Human & Rousseau/Tafelberg 1988) p.65. 5 A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981) pp.19–20. 6 J. Van Rooyen, “The White Right,” in A. Reynolds (ed.), Election '94 South Africa. The Campaigns, Results and Future Prospects (Claremont: David Philip 1994) p.89. 7 D. Welsh, “Right-Wing Terrorism in South Africa,” Terrorism and Political Violence 7/1 (Spring 1995), p.261. 8 The Afrikaner Volksfront's “Committee of Generals” comprised General Viljoen; General Mike Geldenhuys, a former Commissioner of Police; General Kobus Visser, ex-South African Police; and Generals Tienie Groenewald and Dries Bischoff, both former army generals. 9 P. Stiff, Warfare by Other Means. South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s (Alberton: Galago 2001) p.537. 10 B. Sass, “The Might of the Right,” African Defence Review 15 (1994), p.2, (17 Nov. 2003). 11 Van Rooyen (note 3) p.198. 12 Ibid, pp.208–209. 13 Stiff (note 9) p.544. 14 Schönteich and Boshoff (note 2) p.28. 15 P. Honey, “Terrorism & the Right Wing. No Sudden Revival,” Financial Mail, 8 Nov. 2002. 16 No author, “Willem Ratte Convicted for 1997 Sabotage,” Daily Dispatch, 17 Feb. 2001. 17 No author, “Court Hears of Bizarre Rightwing Plot to Take Over the Country,” South African Press Association, 8 May 2001. 18 A. Maykuth, “A White Plot for Race War Was Far-Fetched, but Some Believed,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, 23 May 2001. No author, “Tempe Accused Tells of Plot to Kill Mbeki,” Daily Dispatch, 29 May 2001. 19 The arrestees are referred to as “alleged” Boeremag members because, at the time of writing, they have not been convicted for engaging in subversive and terrorism-related activities under the auspices of the Boeremag. Their trial is unlikely to result in a verdict before 2005. 20 E. Momberg, “FW de Klerk Was Bought,” The Citizen, 23 Aug. 2002. 21 H. Otto, “Hunt for Boeremag Coup Plotters,” Pretoria News, 10 Sept. 2002. 22 R. Munusamy, “Summit Bomb Plot Foiled,” Sunday Times, 8 Sept. 2002. 23 S. Sole and S. Brümmer, “The Rise of the Boer al-Qaeda,” Mail & Guardian, 1 Nov. 2002. 24 C. Thompson, “Boer Rebels' Foiled,” The Citizen, 16 Sept. 2002; R. Munusamy, “Right Wing Targets Premier,” Sunday Times, 15 Sept. 2002; D. Schuettler, “S. Africa Police Arrest Fugitives in Extremist Plot,” Reuters News Service, 20 Sept. 2002. 25 M. le Roux, “Mandela Slams Right-Wing Plot,” Pretoria News, 18 Sept. 2002. 26 B. Naidu, “We Take Great Pleasure in Inviting You to Our Civil War,” Sunday Times Metro, 29 Sept. 2002. 27 B. Beukman and V. Keppler, “Regse ‘terroriste’ kan nie staatsgreep uitvoer,” Naweek-Beeld, 5 Oct. 2002. 28 About US$300,000. 29 E. Momberg, “Boere Threats ‘Serious’,” The Citizen, 12 Nov. 2002. 30 C. Hills, “Right-Wing Campaign to Disrupt Bomb Trails,” The Citizen, 14 March 2003. 31 P. J. Pretorius, $ell-Out! The Truth Behind the History Of Sourth African Politics (No place: Published by the author 1997) p.16. 32 A. Snyman, Voice of a Prophet (Mossel Bay: Vaandel Publishers 1999). 33 Ibid, p.210. 34 Ibid, p.175. 35 Ibid, p.213. 36 Ibid, pp.327–328. 37 No author, “No Choice but to Back Boerlmag: Ex-Solidiers,” The Citizen, 3 Dec. 2002; F. Rundle, “Freedom Fighters or Terrorists?,” The Citizen, 9 Oct. 2002; J. Basson, “Hosterie oor Boeremag grens aan paniek,” Die Afrikaner, 29 Nov. 2002. 38 M. du Preez, “Seeds of Right-Wing Violence Are Buried in Real Fears,” The Star, 31 Oct. 2002. 39 P. Laurence, “ANC Should Heed the Group of 63's Warning,” Focus 29 (March 2003). 40 See. J. Battersby, “No Sympathy for Terrorists in Modern SA, but Why Did They Do It?,” Sunday Independent, 3 Nov. 2002; G. Wannenburg, “Marginalization of Right Helps It Recruit for Terror. Address Right-Wing Concerns Before Support for Extremists Grows,” Sunday Independent, 3 Nov. 2002. 41 For a detailed analysis of the phenomenon of farm attacks in South Africa see M. Schönteich and J. Steinberg, Attacks on Farms and Smallholdings. An Evaluation of the Rural Protection Plan (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies 2000). 42 L. Oelofse, “Bela-Bela: A Town Where Still Waters Run Deep. Rightwing Sentiments Flourish,” Pretoria News, 15 Nov. 2002. 43 E. Sidiropoulos et al., South Africa Survey 1997/98 (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations 1998) p.510. 44 E. Momberg, “Stop Afrikaner Massacre – FF,” The Citizen, 20 July 2001. 45 Ibid. 46 No author, Action: Stop Farm Attacks, , (13 Jan. 2003). 47 B. Manby, Unequal Protection. The State Response to Violent Crime on South African Farms (New York: Human Rights Watch 2001) p.145. 48 M. Sekhonyane and A. Louw, “Violent Justice. Vigilantism and the State' Response,” ISS Monograph Series 72 (April 2002) p.36. 49 C. Thompson, “Militant Farmers' Myth,” The Citizen, 2 April 2001. 50 J. Kane-Berman et al., South Africa Survey 2001/2002 (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations 2001) p.213. Note that Statistics South Africa's “expanded definition” of unemployment is used. That is, the economically active population who have not worked during the last seven days prior to being interviewed; and want to work, and are available to start work within a week of being interviewed. 51 No author, “Solidariteit. Wie is ons?” , p 1, (19 Nov. 2003); A. Mischke, “Afrikaners maak steeds so,” Rapport, 19 May 2002. 52 D. Hermann, Balancing Affirmative Action. Paper delivered at a South African Defence College symposium on equal opportunities and affirmative action, , (19 Nov. 2002). 53 Smith (note 5) p.45. 54 P. J. Meyer, “Nasionalisme: Die onsigbare vlam,” in F.A. van Jaarsveld and G.D. Scholtz (eds), Die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. Agtergrond, Ontstaan en Toekoms (Johannesburg: Voortrekker Press 1966) p.289 [author's translation]. 55 Giliomee, The Majority, Minorities and Ex-Nationalities in South Africa and the Proposed Cultural Commission. Report of the proceedings of a Konrad Adenauer Stiftung conference on “The Moral Renaissance: Government, Politics, Ethics and Spirituality,” Johannesburg, 3–4 May 2000, p.42. 56 No author, “New Language Policy for Civil Service Welcomed,” South African Press Association, 4 Dec. 2002. 57 Language Policy for Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Pretoria, Nov. 2002, p.12. 58 T. Cohen and C. Benjamin, “Is Radical Right a Real Threat to SA's Democracy?,” Business Day, 7 Nov. 2002. 59 T. Vosloo, “Afrikaans verenig,” Die Burger, 21 Sept. 2002. 60 P. Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan Education 1986), pp.127–128. 61 Schönteich and Boshoff (note 2) pp.89–91. 62 E. Momberg, “Police ‘Were Out of Order’,” The Citizen, 6 Dec. 2002. 63 Ibid. 64 C. Hills, “Ornamental Guns Seized in Swoop on Derby-Lewis,” The Citizen, 30 Nov. 2002. 65 G. Derby-Lewis, “No Solid Evidence, but Right-Wing Raids Continue,” The Citizen, 12 Dec. 2002. 66 F. Ismail and J. Battersby, “Maps, Bombs Seized in Swoop on Rightwingers,” Sunday Independent, 1 Dec. 2002. 67 No author, “Nog ‘n regerings-aanslag teen boere?,” TAU-SA press release, Pretoria, 3 Dec. 2002, , (11 Dec. 2002). 68 M. Sithole, “Suspect Claims Torture,” Daily News, 25 Nov. 2002. 69 C. Hills, “Police Beat Up Sabotage Suspects—lawyer,” The Citizen, 13 Dec. 2002; H. Otto, “Rightwingers ‘tortured’ by police,” Pretoria News, 24 Dec. 2002; H. Otto, “Man Jailed After Secret Meeting,” Pretoria News, 24 Dec. 2002. 70 H. Giliomee, The Afrikaners (Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers 2003), p.660. 71 R. W. Johnson, “How to Use That Huge Majority” Focus 16, Nov. 1999, , (17 Jan. 2003). 72 H. Giliomee, J. Myburg, and L. Schiemmer, Dominant Party Rule, Opposition Parties and Minorities in South Africa. Report of the proceedings of a conference hosted by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation and Department of Political Studies at Rhodes University, Kariega Game Reserve, 28–30 June 2000. p.39. 73 Ibid, p.46. 74 L. Schlemmer, Can South Africa's Democracy Survive Its History and Political Culture? A Study of Trends in Party Political Support Over Time and the Complex Basis of Voter Choice (Johannesburg: Helen Suzman Foundation 2002), p.7. 75 Giliomee, Myburg and Schlemmer (note 72) p.48. 76 L. Schlemmer, “Race Relations and Racism in Everyday Life” Fast Facts 9, Sep. 2001, , (16 Jan. 2003). 77 H. Adam and K. Moodley, The Negotiated Revolution. Society and Politics in Post-Apartheid South Africa (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers 1993) p.149. 78 R. Williams, “Are the Right-Wing Coup Plotters Just Tilting at Windmills?,” Pretoria News, 11 Oct. 2002. 79 J. Rauch, N. Levine, M. Lue and K. Ngubeni, “Creating a New South African Police Service: Priorities in the Post Election Period,” CSVR Occasional Paper (July 1994). 80 Statistics as of 1 August 2003. Personal communication, SAPS Human Resource Divison, Pretoria, 25 Sept. 2003. 81 Personal communication, South African Department of Defence, Human Resource Divison, Pretoria, 25 Sept. 2003. 82 Verbatim copy of speech by F.W. de Klerk, 21 Jan. 1997, as quoted in Giliomee (note 70) p.656. 83 T. Homer-Dixon, “The Rise of Complex Terrorism,” Foreign Policy (Jan./Feb. 2002).
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