Bernard Berenson’s Cinquecentine: Inspirations from the Sixteenth-Century Accademia Fiorentina
2017; University of Chicago Press; Volume: 20; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1086/691133
ISSN2037-6731
Autores Tópico(s)Renaissance Literature and Culture
ResumoPrevious article FreeBernard Berenson’s Cinquecentine: Inspirations from the Sixteenth-Century Accademia FiorentinaAngela DressenAngela DressenVilla I Tatti, the Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreIf there be such an unimaginable thing as survival, may my spirit haunt this library, and enjoy it physically as I can no longer.1(Bernard Berenson)What the Berenson Library, part of the Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies in Florence, is known for today represents only a portion of Bernard Berenson’s reading interests.2 It respects precisely neither Berenson’s business activities as an art dealer for Italian Renaissance objects nor his scholarly work on Renaissance paintings, which shaped but a small part of it. The book collection also does not exactly mirror Berenson’s original plan to open a cultural center for the arts and humanities, an idea that was then altered. When Harvard University instituted a Center for Italian Renaissance Studies, the library had to be stocked to fill in gaps or to create sections ad hoc that were totally nonexistent (such as the music section). Berenson’s original library did have, on the one hand, a focus on Italian Renaissance painting; on the other hand, it also attempted to be a universal library of the humanities, going far beyond the Renaissance. This means that the collection was not limited to Italy or to a certain period but incorporated international humanities, which only really excluded science and music, as Berenson himself described: “What treasures in every field of art. Scarcely anything missing that really counts, from the whole world. … Photos and magnificent reproductions of not only Italian and Greek and Roman art, but of every province of Antiquity, or Far Eastern, or Indian, or pre-Columbian American. They give me the only real satisfaction that my so-long and so-varied past can still offer me, and I cannot help.”3 Describing Berenson in his reading interests as a palpable omnivore, with a mind easily caught and stimulated, probably best explains this vast collection, spanning America and Africa to the Far East, with Europe as its focus. Looking through the old account books of library acquisitions gives an idea of the efforts that were made to retrieve this diverse body of literature.Looking at Berenson’s rare book collection offers a completely different picture, however. Given his interests in Italian Gothic and Renaissance painting, one would expect to find some illustrated manuscripts and a variety of incunables. Both categories must have been easy to possess for an art dealer who obtained precious manuscripts and paper rolls from many parts of the world, Persia and China included. Yet there is hardly any such thing: despite the fact that Berenson was very knowledgeable about medieval manuscripts and illustrations,4 no illuminated manuscripts are to be found, and his incunables amount to only three, where even the usually richly illustrated Dante commentary by Cristoforo Landino was acquired in one of the few editions without woodcuts.5 The picture is different for his Cinquecentine collection. It reflects a separate interest of Berenson’s, concentrated in an area otherwise not very obvious. This collection seems to represent an attempt to re-create the library of a sixteenth-century Florentine member of an academy, with respect to the size, topics, and languages present, although Berenson declared that he never bought “a book for its rarity from a collector’s point of view.”6 If Berenson may be described as an art collector, as testified by his marvelous collection of Tuscan painting and oriental sculpture, then he certainly may also figure among important rare book collectors. In this field, however, his major focus was on titles published in Italy. Compared to the main part of the library, Berenson’s collection of Cinquecentine is less expansive than one may expect. The Berenson Library today possesses a total of 218 books from the sixteenth century, of which 105 date from Berenson’s time, plus fifteen Cinquecentine that are now lost.7 This makes a total of 120 Cinquecentine that Berenson held in his collection. Out of these thirty-four are considered rare books with only up to ten exemplars known in worldwide library catalogs, with the majority, exactly eighteen, being much rarer, with up to five copies known. Therefore, 28 percent of Berenson’s Cinquecentine are rare examples, and 15 percent are close to being unique copies, judging from surviving exemplars.8Berenson started his Cinquecentine collection with a clear choice that he would maintain for the rest of his life: he nearly exclusively bought early printed books that would be dear to a “studioso,” a person who presumably read most of these texts. He was not a book collector in the classical sense, someone who would buy manuscripts or illuminated books that were nice to look at. That these would have been available, and also in great quantity, is testified by the plenitude of archival records for imported books from England, Germany, and France. As the records in the Soprintendenza per le Esportazioni ed Importazioni in Florence show, for the first two decades of the twentieth century, for example, the Libreria Antiquaria editor Leo S. Olschki imported a variety of books of hours, bibles, psalters, illuminated manuscripts, and some classical and patristic texts, most of them manuscripts and very few published. The so-called Libreria Voynich, situated in London, sent illuminated manuscripts, books of hours, psalters, bibles, and classical texts to its Florentine seat. And other smaller active booksellers buying books from England, Germany, and France show that this must have been standard. Most of these purchases were manuscripts, either religious texts or richly illuminated bibles or books of hours from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century and produced mainly in Italy, although some also came from France. The taste for late medieval and Renaissance art was certainly growing in Italy, since other art objects, such as panel paintings, furniture, and carpets, also date from these centuries. Very few printed books figure in the records because even rare and early printed books were not yet considered valuable objects and therefore probably did not need to be documented. Moreover, the price was often much the same as that of modern editions.Berenson studied medieval and Renaissance manuscripts the same way he studied paintings: in front of the original and with photos he took home and added to his vast photo collection. He actually possessed several hundred photographs of illuminated manuscripts of the eleventh to the fifteenth century but hardly any reproductions from a fifteenth- or sixteenth-century printed book.9 Incunables are not well represented even among the reproductions, for several reasons. In terms of illustrations, the often more splendidly decorated manuscript offered better material for questions of attribution or for comparisons with paintings. The fifteenth century had less to offer in terms of art theory and art criticism, what Berenson would really be interested in (as we will see). These circumstances did not mean that Berenson was not informed about fifteenth-century print illustrations, such as woodcuts. His work on Renaissance painters focused on their entire oeuvre, panel paintings, cassone paintings, and woodcuts included, as can be seen in his essay on “Alunno di Domenico” (Bartolommeo di Giovanni), one of the most important woodcut illustrators in Florence at the end of the fifteenth century.10 But we do not know where Berenson studied these objects—presumably in other libraries (see n. 3).Acquisition Records for Early Printed BooksAs early as 1898, Berenson started to acquire rare Cinquecentine, even before he moved to I Tatti and established his personal library there. The first documented book he acquired was Pietro Aretino’s Ragionamento del divino Pietro Aretino nel quale si parla del gioco con moralita piacevole, part of his four Ragionamenti, dedicated to courtly life and games, written in his usual satirical and detached manner. This was one of the few books Berenson collected from outside Italy; it was printed in London, at the press of Giovanni Andrea del Melograno in 1589 (1st ed. Venice, 1534).11 Although Berenson himself traveled to London on a regular basis, he purchased this book in Florence through B. Seeber at an auction (Asta Franchi) shortly before the end of the year (for 1,515 lire). The Ragionamento was most likely acquired together with another book by Aretino, his Quattro commedie del divino Pietro Aretino (Cioé Il marescalco, La cortigiana, La talanta, L’hipocrito), also published in London in 1588 and also acquired through Seeber for the same amount of 1,515 lire (or possibly the price was for both books together).12 Most likely Le cose meravigliose dell’alma città di Roma (Rome, 1589) was also acquired from Seeber for 325 lire on the same occasion.13 In the following year, 1899, Berenson acquired probably another three Cinquecentine, all from the rare book dealer Enrico Tozzi in Siena: Antonio Campi, Cremona fedelissima città (Cremona, 1585),14 Lodovico Dolce, Dialogo della pittura (Venice, 1557),15 and Dante Alighieri, Dante con l’esposizione di Christoforo Landino, et di Alessandro Vellutello (Venice, 1564).16 These first purchases of early printed books were not very rare exemplars or particularly costly, and they fall into the period when Berenson was still short of money and looking for a way to make his living. The next secure purchase dates only fifteen years later. In 1915 he bought a standard edition, which was evidently most useful for his work: Giorgio Vasari, Le vite de’ piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori (Florence, 1568) in original leather binding.17Around 1920, Berenson seems to have started to look for rare editions or famous printers. He also began acquiring rare books from England. His first book from Grafton & Co. in London might have been Suetonius, In hoc volumine haec continentur (C. Suetonij Tranquilli XII Caesares. Sexti Aurelis Victoris à d. Caesare Augusto usque ad Theodosium excerpta. Eutropij De gestis Romanorum Lib. X. Pauli Diaconi libri VIII ad Eutropij historiam additi) (Venice, 1516), which survived in about twenty copies.18 In the same year he bought from unknown sources Leonardo Bruni’s Libro de la Guerra de Ghotti (Venice, 1528), which survived in probably ten copies.19 In 1921 he bought from Davis & Orioli in Italy a very rare edition of Peter Damian, Vita del padre S. Romualdo abate fondatore del sacro eremo & ordine di Camaldoli, e riformatore della vita eremitica (Florence, 1586), in original parchment binding, which survived in only five other copies.20 In 1924 he received from Grafton & Co. in London a very rare copy of Bonaventure, Meditationi devotissime di santo Bonaventura Cardinale fondate sopra la passione nel nostro signore Jesu Cristo (Venice, 1537), in original parchment binding, which is now the only copy available in Italy with probably only one other surviving exemplar elsewhere.21 Most likely during the same year, he acquired through Thomas Thorp in London a rare edition of Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda hec aurea (1559), which is now lost.22 Two more extremely rare copies of Voragine date to 1924, also from Italy and acquired through Davis & Orioli: Legendario delli sancti, vulgare et historiato (Venice, 1504), with only two other known copies existing,23 and another Legenda aurea from 1559.24In 1926 another book arrived from Grafton in London: Romano Alberti, Trattato della nobiltà della pittura (Rome, 1585), in original parchment binding.25 In 1927 we find the first documented acquisition of a rare book written by Anton Francesco Doni, who would become one of Berenson’s favorite authors. This was his La libraria del Doni Fiorentino (Venice, 1580) (fig. 1).26 In 1928 he received from John Grant in Edinburgh Orazio Torsellino’s Horatii Tursellini Romani e Societate Iesu Lauretanae historiae libri quinque (Rome, 1597),27 and from Marks & Co. in London Michele Marullo Tarcaniota’s Michaelis Tarchaniotae Marulli Constantinopolitani Epigrammata & Hymni (Paris).28Figure 1. Anton Francesco Doni, La libraria del Doni Fiorentino (Venice, 1580). (Villa I Tatti, Berenson Library, Berenson’s copy.)In these years Berenson also developed his second bibliophilic interest, which turned out to be the opposite of the first: the collection of richly illuminated Asian manuscripts. At the end of the 1911, we have the first documented acquisition for an illuminated Asian manuscript, which Berenson bought in Paris.29 Then in November of the following year, Berenson personally imported a Japanese book from Paris, together with five Japanese miniatures,30 and in summer 1913 another Arabic manuscript (possibly together with an Asian stone sculpture figuring an animal).31 In these same years, the book dealer G. Egidi was also a frequent buyer of oriental manuscripts in Paris, and Berenson might well have taken some of his too. Indeed, in October 1913, Egidi acquired two Qu’ran manuscripts (sixth/seventh century and ninth/tenth century) from Paris for Berenson, both richly illuminated and with a leather binding (one, at least, is now considered a fake).32 In later years Berenson would get his Asian manuscripts through Harrassowitz in Germany and then in the 1940s again through Paris, from Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner.33The Disposition of Berenson’s Cinquecento Rare Book Collection—the Collection of a Sixteenth-Century AcademicianBerenson’s cinquecento collection shows clear and rather astonishing areas of preferences, in comparison to Berenson’s overall interests evident in the rest of his library. A Florentine humanist library of the sixteenth century would not have been considerably different: out of the approximately 120 titles there are about thirty-five on Renaissance literature, twenty-five on medieval and Renaissance history, twelve on art history, and fifteen each on antiquity and medieval theology.34 What is even more telling is the fact that most of the literature titles and at least half of the art history titles are written by members of Florentine or Roman literary academies: Benedetto Varchi, Paolo Giovio, Anton Francesco Doni, Raffaello Borghini, Alessandro Lamo, Romano Alberti, and Luigi Alamanni. All of these writers had written important works on the visual arts, assisted in the intellectual education of artists, or taken part in establishing artists’ academies. They helped to shape the theoretical grounds of the visual arts by defining the categories of painting, sculpture, and architecture, which were necessary to elevate them to a science that was worthy of an academy. This focus also illuminates the smaller number of books in the art history section that were written by artists themselves. First are the two classical authors Vitruvius and Serlio; then three sixteenth-century academicians, Vasari, Cellini, and Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo; the architect Andrea Palladio; and one foreign and highly influential author Albrecht Dürer. Other important authors associated with academies are represented as well, such as Pietro Aretino, Lodovico Dolce, and Girolamo Ruscelli. Those texts with connections to the Accademia Fiorentina amount to more than 25 percent of the cinquecento holdings. Given the interest of the Accademia Fiorentina, sustained by Cosimo I, in promulgating knowledge of all sciences in the vernacular, it is hardly surprising to see that among Berenson’s Cinquecentine there are one hundred titles in the vernacular, seventeen in Latin, and three in French.It was precisely the sixteenth century that shaped this rare book collection. Works by the three corone, Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, or from the fifteenth century are far outnumbered by literature connected to the Florentine academies. Rather than purchasing texts by Dante and Petrarch themselves, Berenson bought commentaries on them, many of which played an important role in the academies of the sixteenth century.35 He possessed no early printed editions of Boccaccio at all. There is little on patristics and philosophy, although this area constituted a substantial part of Berenson’s modern library. And yet Berenson had a vivid interest in Platonic philosophy, as he himself said: he feared that he ran “the risk to be taken for a Greek philologist or for a Platonic metaphysician.”36 He did, however, possess fundamental theological works from the Middle Ages, which would have been found in every substantial Renaissance library, like the Meditations by Bonaventure, Specchio di Croce by Domenico Cavalca, Scala Paradisi by Climacus, Bernard of Clairvaux’s Sermons and Meditations, and Jacobus de Voragine’s Legenda aurea, completed by a few saints’ lives. Anyone interested in theological questions in the Renaissance was expected to have read these texts. The only important field missing in Berenson’s Renaissance library collection is Aristotle and his medieval commentators. Crucial for those who frequented universities, such works would have had less importance for academy members.As for the publishers of Berenson’s Cinquecentine, they represent in most cases what would have been available in Florence already in the sixteenth century. Almost all books were published in Italy, with the exception of four French books and one Italian book from London. The most frequent publishers are well-known names from Florence and Venice: Torrentino and Giunti from Florence and Giunti, Francesco Sansovino, Gabriel Giolito, and Paolo Manuzio from Venice.Favorite Cinquecento AuthorsAs noted, Berenson’s favorite authors of those Cinquecentine books come out of the Accademia Fiorentina. In first place is Anton Francesco Doni (1513–74): Berenson possessed eleven books by Doni from the sixteenth century, together with three from the seventeenth century. This means Berenson owned close to all of Doni’s writings and all of his important works in a first edition.37 Berenson purchased another six modern editions. Doni was a Florentine of humble origins, a son of a scissor maker, who was briefly a Servite at Santissima Annunziata before embarking on a period of travel; he also spent time as a lay cleric, finally marrying and starting a family. More constant was his interest in literature, and he was a member of the Venetian Accademia Pellegrina and the Accademia Fiorentina. His love for publishing not only his own literary works but those of his fellow accademici led him to open printing shops in Florence and Venice, which were both short-lived. More stable was his collaboration with the printers Giolito and Marcolini in Venice.38 Among his friends were writers such as Pietro Aretino and artists such as Baccio Bandinelli and Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli (to whom he dedicated his second book, Il disegno).39 He also advised artists on issues related to humanism and helped with concrete recommendations on iconography. But most significantly, he was important for defining the characteristics and differences between painting and sculpture. Doni published two books on the visual arts: Disegno del Doni (Venice, 1549) (fig. 2) and Pitture del Doni Academico Pellegrino (Padua, 1564). His Disegno was written two years after Varchi had held the famous Lezzioni in Florence, and it highlights crucial points that Varchi would publish a year after Doni’s book was printed. Doni likewise declares disegno the most important foundation for both sculpture and painting.40Figure 2. Anton Francesco Doni, Disegno del Doni (Venice, 1549). (Villa I Tatti, Berenson Library, Berenson’s copy.)Doni’s bibliophilic interest led him to publish two volumes on his idea of an ideal library, where he listed about one hundred authors’ names and their most significant titles (as chosen by himself), completed with some explanations on their importance. The idea of a recommended book list was not new; it actually goes back to late antiquity and early Christianity and was already pursued by St. Jerome. In the Renaissance we find book lists by Pope Nicholas V, Angelo Decembrio, and Angelo Poliziano, but Doni was the first to concentrate exclusively on vernacular literature.41 Berenson possessed three sixteenth-century copies of Doni’s book list (La libraria di Doni, 1550–51). Although one might therefore think that Berenson was deeply impressed by this author’s list, it did not lead him in his own choice of early printed books. There are but a few titles that overlap. It is nevertheless interesting to read Doni’s explanations that he gives along with his lists. He recommends a life of learning and possibly gaining universal knowledge—exactly what Berenson would strive for all his life.42 In the foreword of the first edition, Doni explains that this list should serve everyone interested in knowing which printed books existed in the vernacular.43 More pointedly, in the second edition he states that he has created a library list with authors he has read and wants to make public, since many of these titles were little known and hard to find, and some of them were not yet printed. He knew in which hidden and private libraries these rare books were to be found and would readily help with advice.44 Although Berenson did not attempt to build his library based on Doni’s recommendations, he was influenced by what Doni was proposing.Berenson also possessed Doni’s translation of Pliny the Younger’s Epistles (Epistole di G. Plinio, tradotte per L. Dolce [Venice, 1548]), with a description of country life and his family villa, another interest Berenson shared with Doni.45 While Doni’s works topped the list of Berenson’s cinquecento holdings, Berenson’s interest in him was especially strong in the late 1920s and 1930s, when Berenson acquired three sixteenth-century copies of Doni’s book list (La Libraria di Doni, 1550–51; bought in 1927, 1930, and 1936) and the Disegno del Doni (1930). It seems possible that Berenson’s interest in Doni and his book list was connected with his friendship with Benedetto Croce, which was also particularly lively in the 1930s. These two bibliophiles might have compared library holdings and book lists in their shared literary fervor while they were both following Doni’s advice of life-long learning toward universal knowledge.46 Their long-standing friendship over three decades was a mutual source of intellectual energy and collaboration. They shared many interests, including, as Croce claimed in his autobiography, a desire for “perpetual education, and knowledge as the unity of knowing and learning.”47 In this they both aligned themselves with several ideas from Doni regarding well-considered library acquisitions and the search for perpetual knowledge.Doni’s book on drawings (along with that of Varchi, which Berenson also possessed, although we do not have an acquisition date) left a direct impact on Berenson’s work. Although he had started working on Florentine drawings in 1903 (after he had acquired Dolce’s Dialogo della pittura in 1899), he became interested in drawings again in the 1930s, leading to several articles and books as well as a new edition of his Florentine drawing studies (Disegni inediti di “Tommaso” [Florence, 1932], I disegni di Alunno di Benozzo [Rome, 1932], The Drawings of the Florentine Painters [Chicago, 1938]). In all his publications, Berenson confirmed drawing as a principal means for evaluating style and method.Paolo Giovio (1483–1552) is second in frequency among Berenson’s cinquecento authors in early printed editions. Born of noble origins, he led an active life as bishop, historian, professor of moral philosophy, and, most important of all, one of the first museologists and art critics.48 The reason for Berenson’s attention may well lie in Giovio’s interests in art, art criticism, and private museums, as well as his way of life in an atmosphere of rural leisure. As a museologist he created one of the first private museums in Italy in his Villa at Lake Como, where he installed a portrait gallery. Some of these portraits and descriptions were published later as a reflection on the literary tradition of Uomini illustri. His artist portraits and biographies may have inspired Vasari to write his Lives. Price Zimmermann described Giovio’s lifestyle as follows: “the cultivation of philosophy and letters in an atmosphere of rural leisure, the celebration of peaceful country delights over wearisome urban turmoil, and the reluctant acknowledgment of the tension between the charms of country retreats and the compelling vitality of urban centers. Retiring to the country, Giovio imagined himself in the company of Cicero in his villa at Tusculum, Aulus Gellius in the villa of Herodes Atticus, Silius Italicus in one of his Neapolitan villas, and Pliny in his retreat at Laurentium, but he also identified himself with Landino in the monastery of Camaldoli and Politian in the Medici villa at Fiesole, suggesting that he credited the Quattrocento humanists with having recaptured the manner of life of the ancients.”49 This lifestyle combined with a remarkable private museum and writings on art appears to be a predecessor of Berenson’s own way of life.Giovio not only wrote about famous people’s lives; his museum established in Como in 1536 was also filled with portraits of famous men, executed by famous painters, and these portraits often had a short biography attached to the picture. The portrait gallery of almost 150 famous men of political, social, or intellectual importance followed the tradition of viris illustribus. They were either ordered directly from famous or less well-known painters or, when that was not possible, copied from other paintings or statues and busts. His artists included Mantegna, Dosso, Titian, and Bronzino. Many of these portraits—now dispersed around the world—were used later on as models for the woodcut portraits in his books. Giovio wrote a description of his museum for Ottavio Farnese (who could not come to visit it) in which Giovio said his museum was enlivened by Apollo and the nine muses. Minerva watched over the museum with the statues and the annex library.50 The portraits were arranged in four groups: the first group consisted of those who had passed away, most from antiquity; the second was of people who were still alive and famous; the third group included people who left great art works; and the fourth consisted of popes, kings, and other public figures of exemplary behavior.51 The idea of a library with an annex museum showing some portraits and figures was an idea that Berenson must have appreciated.Berenson possessed eighteen titles by Giovio published between 1547 and 1560, which comprised six works, of which four were early translations into the vernacular. Half of Berenson’s books on Giovio dealt with the viris illustribus tradition, a favorite topic of Giovio’s, which was connected to Giovio’s portrait gallery in his museum. Giovio’s Vitae illustrum virorum, of which Berenson possessed the Basil 1578 edition, became Giovio’s most important work.52 Additionally, Berenson possessed the second edition of Giovi’s Le iscrittioni poste sotto le vere imagini de gli huomini famosi in lettere (Venice, 1558) (fig. 3), bought in 1941, and the Elogia virorum literis illustrium (Basle, 1577). Another four modern editions of Giovio were also in Berenson’s possession.Figure 3. Paolo Giovio, Le iscrittioni poste sotto le vere imagini de gli huomini famosi in lettere (Venice, 1558). (Villa I Tatti, Berenson Library, Berenson’s copy.)Probably most important for Berenson was Giovio’s engagement as an early art critic. After Giovio arrived in Rome in 1512, he immediately made contact with the pope and his artists, Michelangelo and Raphael, working in the Apostolic palace in the Sistina and the Stanze.53 Giovio had encountered Leonardo before in Pavia, when he was doing anatomical drawings and dissections. Before helping Vasari to compose the standard version of the artists’ lives, Giovio himself wrote brief biographies of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Giovio stressed Leonardo’s philosophical and intellectual capacities, while for Michelangelo Giovio concentrated on aesthetics.54 Giovio praised Titian’s color “ductus” and his figure-surrounding lines.55 The way Giovio expressed himself about art shows him as an art connoisseur and art critic.56 This must certainly have impressed Berenson, who had similar critical interests in aesthetics and style and who embarked on comparable topics. For Giovio, as for Berenson, the characteristics of personal style needed to be pointed out, as did the differences between schools and regions, as Giovio writes: “As we look at a famous painting, we immediately recognize the brush and the hand of the artist, as the most characteristic peculiarities naturally accompany the most gifted talents.”57 Aesthetic qualities and artistic talent were also topics in which Giovio was interested, as is apparent in this assessment of Michelangelo: “he so successfully produced the light itself, by means of expressive shadows, that with the real nature of bodies thus represented, even ingenious artisans marveled at things that were flat as if they had been solid.”58 Art criticism and art connoisseurship developed during the first half of the sixteenth century, practiced mainly by writers rather than by artists themselves. As Zimmermann noted, without “a developed critical vocabulary and well-articulated critical standards, Renaissance artists and critics were unable to give expression to concerns. … In the lack of a well-developed corpus of ancient models for aesthetic
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