Reaction: Surviving on the Moon, Mars, and Asteroids
2018; Elsevier BV; Volume: 4; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1016/j.chempr.2017.12.020
ISSN2451-9308
Autores Tópico(s)Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
ResumoProf. Foing is an advisor to the director general of the European Space Agency (ESA), a space astrophysicist at the European Space Research & Technology Centre (ESTEC), executive director of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), and research professor at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and Florida Tech. He was chief scientist, chairman of the ESTEC staff association, and lead scientist for the ESA SMART-1 mission to the Moon. He is co-investigator of ESA missions SOHO, COROT, Mars Express, ExoMars, and EXPOSE experiments (FOTON capsules and International Space Station). He is manager of ILEWG ExoGeoLab and EuroMoonMars field simulations in extreme terrestrial analogs. Prof. Foing is an advisor to the director general of the European Space Agency (ESA), a space astrophysicist at the European Space Research & Technology Centre (ESTEC), executive director of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), and research professor at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and Florida Tech. He was chief scientist, chairman of the ESTEC staff association, and lead scientist for the ESA SMART-1 mission to the Moon. He is co-investigator of ESA missions SOHO, COROT, Mars Express, ExoMars, and EXPOSE experiments (FOTON capsules and International Space Station). He is manager of ILEWG ExoGeoLab and EuroMoonMars field simulations in extreme terrestrial analogs. Recent space exploration has provided new knowledge about the Moon, Mars, and asteroids, allowing us to consider them as destinations for humans and prepare for future technologies and missions.1Ehrenfreund P. McKay C. Rummel J.D. Foing B.H. Neal C.R. Masson-Zwaan T. Ansdell M. Peter N. Zarnecki J. Mackwell S. et al.Toward a global space exploration program: a stepping stone approach.Adv. Space Res. 2012; 49: 2-48Crossref Scopus (49) Google Scholar, 2Huntress W. Stetson D. Farquhar R. Zimmerman J. Clark B. O’Neil W. Bourke R. Foing B. The next steps in exploring deep space—A cosmic study by the IAA.Acta Astronaut. 2006; 58: 304-377Crossref Scopus (36) Google Scholar These extreme places harbor various hazards and risks, as well as opportunities linked to utilizing local resources and environments. The article by Orlando et al. discusses radiation effects on volatiles and the exploration of asteroids and the Moon, particularly ionizing radiation that leads to DNA damage and micrometeorites. Electronic sputtering and the interaction between solar protons and the regolith can lead to the production of water. The authors discuss the non-persistence of water above 150 K and how a process of recombinative desorption of two OH groups could provide water above 450 K. Water, volatiles, and radiation effects are key issues for future exploration of the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. The recent international lunar decade of orbital flotilla (e.g., Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-1 [SMART-1], Kaguya from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Chang’E 1 and 2 from the Chinese Lunar Orbiter Mission, Chandrayaan-1 from the Indian Lunar Exploration Programme, Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite [LCROSS], Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter [LRO], and Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory [GRAIL]; see http://sci.esa.int/ilewg/) has unveiled new faces of the Moon and has particularly revealed the extent of shadowed lunar polar areas (covering about 14,000 km2 at temperatures of 40–100 K, where water sublimation is negligible over millions of years), the presence of hydroxyl OH in extended lunar polar areas, and the presence of subsurface hydrogen in the top meter. Furthermore, LCROSS impact spectroscopy has quantified a 5% fraction of water ice in the soil and diagnosed some organics. Organic molecules on the Moon could be expected from delivery by interplanetary dust particles or carbon-rich asteroids or comets. Little carbon contribution was found in Apollo samples (fewer than 200 parts per million). Laboratory experiments have shown that large complex organics can be generated by the processing of ice mixtures. Polycyclic aromatic or fullerene molecules that are detected in the interstellar medium can be integrated with ices, grains, and lead under UV and particle radiation, resulting in very interesting chemistry, even relevant for prebiotic ingredients. Experiments conducted outside space capsules3Ehrenfreund P. Ruiterkamp R. Peeters Z. Foing B. Salama F. Martins Z. The ORGANICS experiment on BIOPAN V: UV and space exposure of aromatic compounds.Planet. Space Sci. 2007; 55: 383-400Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar or on the International Space Station and, in the future, on the Moon can help to diagnose the effects of space radiation on these complex molecules or on living organisms. Orlando et al. stress the role of galactic cosmic rays and the need for prediction of solar flares and particle events, shelter from radiation, and real-time radiation monitoring. Therefore, we need to use surface in situ resources for protection against radiation and micrometeorites. On the Moon’s surface, one can build a radiation shield against solar particle events and galactic cosmic rays by using a 1- to 2-m-thick regolith, as well as water in the ceiling for good proton stopping power (see Figure 1). In the next decade, we will be preparing a lunar robotic village where landers and rovers from different space agencies (e.g., India, Japan, Russia, the ESA, and the US) and new space entrepreneurs (e.g., Google Lunar XPRIZE, SpaceX, and Blue Origin) can demonstrate these technologies, test the survival of technical and biological systems, and work to establish protected habitats for future humans planning to step on the surface within the next 10 years. Orlando et al. further discuss ongoing research on new materials against radiation, such as a matrix resin precursor proposed by the REVEALS (Radiation Effects on Volatiles and Exploration of Asteroids and Lunar Surfaces) team. We performed radiation-level calculations for examples of Mars landing missions.4McKenna-Lawlor S. Gonçalves P. Keating A. Morgado B. Heynderickx D. Nieminen P. Santin G. Truscott P. Lei F. Foing B. Balaz J. Characterization of the particle radiation environment at three potential landing sites on Mars using ESA’s MEREM models.Icarus. 2012; 218: 723-734Crossref Scopus (27) Google Scholar Galactic cosmic rays are even more penetrating and present than solar particles, and one should use extensive local material for protection. There is no remedy at present for extensive stays in lunar orbit (except if we can economically and efficiently bring sufficient shielding material from the Moon’s surface) for the long journey to Mars or in Mars orbits (except in a protected outpost on Phobos or Demos) or in deep space around asteroids. For deep-space travel and surface stays, one needs to advance research in the following areas: spacecraft and habitat design, solar-flare prediction, special architecture for shelters, the protection of critical technical systems and humans in work and sleep areas, the study of radiation effects on the central nervous system, the development of new spacesuits for indoor habitats, detection systems and optimized mitigation for radiation hazards, medicine, space weather, and new materials. “Moon Village” habitats on the surface or subsurface are the next logical step where we can demonstrate these technologies and where humankind, together with robots, can target a permanent presence and operations from 2030. This will advance science, technology, peaceful cooperation, business, innovation, education, and inspiration for all and characterize the Moon as the eighth Earth continent (Woerner and B.H.F., 2016, Lunar Exploration Analysis Group, abstract 5084; B.H.F. et al., 2017, Lunar Exploration Analysis Group, abstract 5073). Terrestrial simulations as conducted in the International Lunar Exploration Working Group EuroGeoMars,5Foing B.H. Stoker C. Ehrenfreund P. Astrobiology field research in Moon/Mars analogue environments.Int. J. Astrobiol. 2011; 10: 137-139Crossref Scopus (24) Google Scholar EuroMoonMars (B.H.F. et al., 2017, Lunar Exploration Analysis Group, abstract 5073), or other programs are helping to test and validate technologies, perform interdisciplinary research, and study human physiology and social factors for training professionals.5Foing B.H. Stoker C. Ehrenfreund P. Astrobiology field research in Moon/Mars analogue environments.Int. J. Astrobiol. 2011; 10: 137-139Crossref Scopus (24) Google Scholar Moon Village activities will also be critical for demonstrating how to operate sustainable life support, utilize resources, deploy infrastructures from the Moon, test to live off the land, and prepare for human destinations beyond the Moon, such as Mars and asteroids. Catalyst: Radiation Effects on Volatiles and Exploration of Asteroids and the Lunar SurfaceOrlando et al.ChemJanuary 11, 2018In BriefProf. Thomas Orlando is currently a professor in the Georgia Institute of Technology (GIT) School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and an adjunct professor in the GIT School of Physics. He serves as director of the GIT Center for Space Technology and Research and as principal investigator (PI) of the NASA Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute Center on Radiation Effects on Volatiles and Exploration of Asteroids and Lunar Surfaces (REVEALS). Prof. Carol Paty and Dr. Esther Beltran are deputy PIs, and Dr. Full-Text PDF Open ArchiveReaction: Chemistry Driven by the Harsh Space EnvironmentWilliam M. FarrellChemJanuary 11, 2018In BriefDr. Bill Farrell is a plasma physicist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. He is a co-investigator on the Cassini mission to Saturn and the Parker Solar Probe mission. He is also principal investigator of the DREAM2 Center for Space Environments ( http://ssed.gsfc.nasa.gov/dream/ ), which examines the exosphere formation, radiation effects, and plasma interactions of the Moon and other airless bodies. Dr. Farrell has authored or co-authored over 200 journal articles on various aspects of space science, including the hydroxylation at the Moon, the curious plasma effects within the Enceladus plume, and the possibility of electricity generated in Martian dust devils. Full-Text PDF Open Archive
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