The Yenikapı 12 Shipwreck, a 9th-Century Merchantman from the Theodosian Harbour in Istanbul, Turkey: construction and reconstruction
2018; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 47; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1111/1095-9270.12325
ISSN1095-9270
Autores Tópico(s)Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
ResumoShipwreck Yenikapı 12 was discovered in Yenikapı, Istanbul, Turkey in 2007 during rescue excavations carried out by Istanbul Archaeological Museums. The majority of the bottom of the shipwreck, found within the sediment-filled Theodosian Harbour, is intact and part of the cargo was found in situ. According to the results of reconstruction studies, YK12 was a small merchantman working coastal waters, approximately 9.24m in length and 2.64m in breadth. The shipwreck is dated to the 9th century AD and was built with a mixed construction using the shell-based method for the lower hull. El pecio de Yenikapı 12, un mercante del siglo noveno en el Puerto de Teodosio en Estambul, Turquía: construcción y reconstrucción El pecio de Yenikapı 12 fue descubierto en Yenikapı, Estambul, Turquía en el ano 2007 durante las excavaciones de rescate llevadas a cabo por Museos Arqueológicos de Estambul. La mayoría del sollado del pecio, situado dentro del Puerto de Teodosio que está lleno de sedimento, está intacto y parte de la carga fue hallada in situ. Acorde con los resultados de los estudios de reconstrucción, YK12 era un pequeño mercante de cabotaje y tenía aproximadamente 9.24m de eslora y 2.64m de manga. El pecio fue fechado como del siglo XI A.D. y su construcción es mixta empleando el método de construcción basada en el forro para la porción inferior del casco. Yenikapı 12 batığı, Türkiye'de, İstanbul Yenikapı'da, İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri tarafından gerçekleştirilen kurtarma kazıları sırasında 2007 yılında keşfedilmiştir. Theodosius Limanı dolgusu içinde, bulunan batığın, alt gövdesinin büyük bir kısmı bütündür ve içindeki yükün bir bölümü in situ olarak bulunmuştur. Rekonstrüksiyon çalışmalarına göre, YK12, 9,24 m uzunluğunda ve 2,64 m genişliğinde, kıyı denizciliği yapan küçük bir ticaret teknesidir. MS 9. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen batık, karma yapım yönteminin, inşaya önce kaplamaların kurulmasıyla başlandığı bir evresini temsil etmektedir. 土耳其伊斯坦布尔狄奥多西港遗址出土的9世纪商船耶尼卡皮12号:建造与复原 2007年, 伊斯坦布尔考古博物馆在土耳其耶尼卡皮进行抢救性发掘时发现了耶尼卡皮12号 (Yenikapı12) 沉船。沉船底部绝大部分包裹在狄奥多西港内的沉积物中, 因而保存完好, 部分船货发现时仍处于原位。根据复原研究的结果, YK12是一艘在沿岸水域工作的小型商船, 长约9.24米, 宽约2.64米。该沉船的历史可追溯到公元9世纪, 船体采用混合建造法, 壳体下部以船壳法建造。 关键词:耶尼卡皮沉船, 狄奥多西港, 混合建造法, 船舶复原, 平接销钉船板 土耳其伊斯坦布爾狄奧多西港遺址出土的9世紀商船耶尼卡皮12號:建造與複原 2007年, 伊斯坦布爾考古博物館在土耳其耶尼卡皮進行搶救性發掘時發現了耶尼卡皮12號 (Yenikapı12) 沉船。沉船底部絕大部分包裹在狄奧多西港內的沉積物中, 因而保存完好, 部分船貨發現時仍處于原位。根據複原研究的結果, YK12是一艘在沿岸水域工作的小型商船, 長約9.24米, 寬約2.64米。該沉船的曆史可追溯到公元9世紀, 船體采用混合建造法, 殼體下部以船殼法建造。 關鍵詞:耶尼卡皮沉船, 狄奧多西港, 混合建造法, 船舶複原, 平接銷釘船板 Archaeological excavations in Yenikapı were conducted within the scope of the Marmaray and Metro projects and were carried out non-stop by Istanbul Archaeological Museums (IAM) from 2004 to 2013. A 12m-thick deposit was excavated with stratigraphic layers dating from the end of the Ottoman Empire to the Neolithic Age (Kızıltan, 2010; Kocabaş, 2015b). The Theodosian Harbour, which was discovered during the excavations, produced many archaeological finds that have enriched the cultural history of Istanbul, most notably the remains of 37 vessels that sank at different times from the 5th to 11th centuries AD.1 The excavation of the Theodosian Harbour and the recording methods used have been previously published (Kocabaş, 2008; Kızıltan, 2010; Kocabaş, 2010; Kocabaş, 2015a; Kocabaş, 2015b, Pulak et al., 2015). Yenikapı 12 shipwreck (YK 12) with a cargo of amphoras was discovered by IAM archaeologists in the east part of the harbour in February 2007. The shipwreck was located in the fifth sediment layer, in grid squares F-G/13-14 at the Yenikapı site (Fig. 1) (Perinçek, 2010: 210). After the amphoras had been removed, an Istanbul University (IU) team started to study the wreck. The shipwreck was documented in situ with 3D measurements and drawings, full-scale hand drawings, photography, and photo-mosaics. Then the hull members were dismantled and placed in wooden chests. In July 2007 they were moved to storage tanks in the IU Yenikapı Shipwrecks Research Centre directed by Ufuk Kocabaş. At the Centre, 3D digitizer (FaroArm) drawings, documentation and cataloguing of the hull members were completed, and construction techniques and reconstruction studied (Özsait-Kocabaş, 2013: 45–50). In this article, the basic construction features, design, and building philosophy of YK12 are discussed, along with its structural similarities to other Yenikapı vessels. In order to understand the original form and dimensions of vessel, reconstruction studies are briefly outlined. YK12 was one of four shipwrecks that contained cargo when found. As well as the amphoras and a large number of amphora fragments spread around the hold, cooking utensils were found in the stern area (Fig. 2), including a stove-like brazier and its lid, a cooking pot, two cups, a trefoil juglet, glass goblet sherds, and two amphoras of a different type (Denker et al., 2013: 204, 209). Furthermore, gaming pieces made of ivory, a wooden comb, a bronze needle, and a thimble found inside the shipwreck inform us about daily life aboard. Also, two toggles were found as rigging equipment (Denker et al., 2013: 198–203). Cherry seeds that were found in a basket, and olive and peach seeds provide information about the crew's food supplies. The amphoras and the wreck itself were dated to the 9th century AD (Denker et al., 2013). Additionally, a 9th-century AD coin was found in the shipwreck. The shipwreck has been dated to AD 672–870 by radiocarbon analysis of its timbers (Kocabaş, 2015a: 13) (Table 1).2 There are different opinions about the typology of the amphoras. Some researchers state that the ship's cargo was transported in Crimean amphoras (Trakadas, 2014: 84; Polat, 2016: 382). Also, one of the two amphoras in the storage compartment resembles an amphora type from the Black Sea region found on the Bozburun ship (Hocker et al., 1998: 4, 5; Denker et al., 2013: 204). YK 12 sailed during a period in which trade from Constantinople was directed from the south to the north, to the Aegean and Black Sea (Bortoli and Kazanski, 2002: 662; van Doorninck, 2002: 902; Asal, 2010: 156). Based on the cargo, YK 12 may have been involved in regional trade along the southern coasts of the Black Sea, or it may have been a local trading vessel involved in transshipping cargo carried in Crimean amphoras from a seagoing vessel to a nearby port. Other researchers have suggested the amphoras could be prototypes of a Günsenin type 1 Ganos amphora, dated to the 10th–11th century, from a workshop on the Marmara Sea coast (Günsenin, 2016: 401; Vroom, 2016: 163). If these are earlier Ganos amphoras, the vessel could have been used by a local trader in Marmaran and Thracian foodstuffs (Laiou, 2002: 725; Vroom, 2016: 163–164). The divergent views of the amphoras' provenance and uncertainty about the vessel's route and home port, may be resolved when the analysis of the amphoras and goods the vessel carried is concluded. The vessel might have sunk as a result of a violent storm from the south as it was found covered with sand likely raised from the seabed during a storm (Perinçek, 2010: 211). Since YK 12 sank with a slight incline to starboard, sitting on its bottom, and was quickly buried, most of the timbers under the amphora cargo were preserved in their original places. The hull remains have a length of 7m and a width of 2.3m, and consist of five scarfed keel timbers, 17 planking strakes, two wales on the starboard side, a piece of the starboard caprail, 25 frames, the mast-step timber and 43 ceiling planks (Özsait-Kocabaş and Kocabaş, 2008) (Fig. 3). Five timbers made up the backbone of the vessel, numbered keel 1 to keel 5 from bow to stern. They included a central, rockered keel timber (keel 3), with curved timbers scarfed to each of its ends (keel 2 and keel 4), all of which are well preserved. The posts (keel 1 and keel 5) are largely missing, except for small pieces attached at the scarfs at the ends of keel 2 and keel 4 (Fig. 4, Table 2). The scarfs between the five keel and post pieces are intact and all are keyed hook scarfs (Fig. 5). Rabbets were cut on both sides along the central keel and curved keel timbers. At the stem and sternpost the rabbets end in a smooth transition. Rabbets average 10mm in depth and were cut 12mm below the inboard surface of the keel. Approximately in the middle of the central keel timber and to the stern of keel 4, there are transverse holes cut through the port and starboard faces of the timber. The bottom of the hull was found in a very robust state with nine surviving strakes to starboard and eight to port (Fig. 6). The garboards (PP1, PS1) were made from single planks with tapered ends and are 5.72m long (Tables 3 and 4). At their widest points PS1 measures 122mm and PP1 is 124mm. PS2-1: 5.18* / PS2-2: 2.08* PS3-1: 4.63 / PS3-2: 1.33* PS4-1: 0.96* / PS4-2: 2.75* PS5-1: 2.25 / PS5-2: 4.76* PS6-1: 3.75 / PS6-2: 2.68 PS7-1: 1.48 / PS7-2: 4.60 PS8-1: 1.38* / PS8-2:1.90 PP2-1: 5.02 / PP2-2: 2.10 PP3-1: 4.52 / PP3-2: 1.74* PP5-1: 1.77 / PP5-2: 4.80* PP6-1: 3.65 / PP6-2: 2.59 PP8-1: 1.10* PP8-2: 0.69 They were fastened in the keel rabbet with treenails, driven at intervals of 0.22–0.45m, from the outboard towards the upper surface of the keel, where they were cut flush (Fig. 7). Resin and luting material were found in the join. The other strakes are generally made up of two planks, combining one long and one short plank. These planks also taper towards the ends and range 0.14–0.215m at their widest points. Some planks are very worn and thickness ranges 0.01–0.03m (Fig. 8). The planks forming a strake are joined together with S-shaped scarfs, varying in length from 0.20 to 0.45m. The alignment and locations of these scarfs is approximately symmetrical to port and starboard. The planks are fastened together, edge to edge, with regularly spaced dowels (coaks) from the garboard up to the first wale (Fig. 9). Space between dowels ranges from 0.20m to 0.36m. The dowels are polygonal and 11mm diameter on average. Depending on the width of the planks the dowels are about 0.07–0.10m in length. Dowels 0.09–0.13m long fasten the planking scarfs. Only two dowels were found between the eighth strake (PS8-1, PS8-2) and the first wale, near frames Fr22 and Fr23 (Fig. 10). There is no evidence of dowels above the first wale. Luting was laid between the plank seams and appears around many of the dowels. Also, caulking was determined between wale 1and PS9; caulking material was probably used between the planks of the upper hull. The planking strakes are organized so that the long planks, and thus their scarf directions, alternate from bow to stern (Fig. 6). The long planks of the second and third strakes start at the bow, while the fourth and fifth strakes have the short plank at the bow (except for PP4). On the sixth strake, the direction changes once again and the long planks were placed at the bow. Then the long planks of the seventh and the eighth strakes start at the stern. The planks were scarfed in the same style throughout the hull. The scarf end of the first, long plank was attached to the plank below with a dowel, and the scarfed end of the short piece was joined to the long plank with a dowel, also (Fig. 10). A 4.69m length of the first wale (wale 1) was found in situ on the starboard of the hull, between the 7th/8th and 9th strakes (Fig. 11). The wale has a curved outer surface, and flat inner surface. Both of its ends are broken. It ranges 92–115mm in width and 55–70mm in thickness. Based on the proposed reconstruction (see below), a second wale (wale 2) was positioned at the loaded waterline above plank PS9: a wedged treenail identified at the top end of floor-timber Fr14 supports this hypothesis, as do carpenter's marks on the on the outer surfaces of the long arms of floor-timbers Fr12 and Fr14 and on starboard futtock Fr15 (see below). A third wale (wale 3) was found under the vessel towards the stern on the starboard side, disarticulted from the main structure, but still fastened to a caprail (Fig. 12). It has a similar rounded section to wale 1 with flat edges about 0.03m wide to match the planking below and the caprail above. Both of its ends were broken. No dowels were recorded on the lower edge of wale 3. This piece of wale 3 is 2.63m long, ranges 90–110mm in width, and is c.60mm thick. The caprail fragment is 2.18m long, about 100mm wide and 32mm thick. It was attached to wale 3 with treenails, which were driven into angled drilled holes. Caulking was recorded between the caprail and wale 3. Notches were recorded cut in the inner side of the caprail that seem to be related to the sail rigging (Fig. 13). On wales 1 and 3 the inner surface has raised sections in line with and the same width as some of the frames. These areas were left 2–4mm higher than the rest of the wale surface. Similar protrusions were also found under some frames on plank PS9 (Fig. 13). The presence of through-beams fitted on to the first starboard wale were identified ahead of Fr18 (through-beam 1) and abaft Fr20 (through-beam 2). Through-beam 1 was fastened to wale 1 with a treenail, and a notch 0.07m wide and 0.025m deep was cut for it on the bottom edge of PS9. Only a small part of through-beam 1, 0.06m wide and 0.022m thick and 0.064m long, was preserved (Fig. 13). Through-beam 2 was not found; its location was determined by a treenail and a pressure mark recorded on the upper surface of wale 1, and a notch in the edge of PS9. Remains of 25 floor-timbers (Fr2-Fr26) and 15 futtocks (five to port and ten to starboard) survived (Fig. 14). Most of the floor-timbers were found intact (Fig. 15). The futtocks are well preserved at the scarfs with the floor-timbers but the upper ends are broken at the height of strake 10. The floor-timbers are moulded 0.082–0.096m and sided 0.05–0.07m at the keel. The futtocks are moulded 0.07–0.09m and sided 0.05–0.07m. They have rectangular cross-sections with one entirely flat side, while the other has a 20mm chamfer on one top corner. The chamfered sides of the frames in the array change direction at a certain point: the chamfered side of Fr2–Fr7 face the bow, the mast-step timber starts on Fr8 and thereafter the chamfer is on the stern side of each floor-timber. On the inner surface and side surfaces some floor-timbers have bark layers; therefore, irregular shapes on these surfaces were recorded. The floor-timbers have triangular limber-holes, one on each side of the keel with a vertical face aligned with the outer edge of the keel. The framing system consists of L-shaped floor-timbers, and short and long futtocks. The floor-timbers are asymmetrical, one end finishing at the turn-of-the-bilge and the other extending to strake 9 or wale 2 (Fig. 16). They are placed with the long arms alternating to port and starboard. Corresponding short and long futtocks are scarfed into the ends of the floor-timbers but not fastened (Fig. 14). The long futtocks meet the floor-timbers at the turn-of-the-bilge at the fifth or the sixth strake. The short futtocks start at the ninth strake or at the second wale (Fig. 16). Fr12, which has the narrowest angle of deadrise (4°) and is the broadest floor-timber, has been determined as the midships frame. The floor-timbers were placed on the keel with room and space ranging 0.23–0.27m with an average of 0.25m. Eight of the floor-timbers (Fr4, Fr8, Fr10, Fr12, Fr14, Fr16, Fr22, and Fr24) were attached to the keel with iron nails, while 11 of them (Fr3, Fr6, Fr9, Fr11, Fr13, Fr15, Fr17, Fr19, Fr21, Fr23, and Fr25) are fastened with treenails. Seven floor-timbers (Fr1, Fr2, Fr5, Fr7, Fr18, Fr20, and Fr26) were not fastened to the keel at all. A pattern was identified: the floor-timbers with long arms to starboard were attached with iron nails, while those with long arms to port were fastened to the keel with treenails. The frames were attached to the planking with one or two treenails per strake. They go right through the frame and planking. These treenails were driven with spaces ranging 0.04–0.15m along the inner surface of each frame. Iron nails were also used as frame-plank fasteners; nails were driven from the outboard and only go into the thickness of the frame. These nails were found less often than treenails and with an irregular distribution throughout the hull. The mast-step timber was placed on the floor-timbers between Fr8 and Fr16, close to the centre of the vessel, and was found still set firmly in place and intact (Figs 17-19). It has a rectangular section with chamfered edges. It is 2.05m long with a maximum cross section 0.145m wide and 0.10m deep at the step. It has notches cut 0.03–0.04m deep on the underside that fit tightly over the floor-timbers. In addition, notches were cut into floor-timbers Fr8, Fr12, and Fr16 to fit the mast-step timber. It is attached to Fr13 with an iron nail. There are two mortises on the upper surface of the mast-step timber. One is the step for the mast, the other a small rectangular mortise foreward of the step. The small mortise is about 0.096m long, 0.04m wide and 0.046m deep. The mast-step itself is 0.206m long, 0.056m wide and 0.058m deep. Along the long edges of this mortise there are thin wooden rods nailed to the mast-step timber that are approximately 0.44m long and 0.04m wide. A total of 43 ceiling planks have survived (Fig. 20), that were systematically placed and secured to the floor-timbers with 1–3 iron nails. The ceiling was placed by superimposing one plank edge 20mm over the next, starting from the keel working up the sides to starboard and port (Fig. 17). Five groups of ceiling planks were placed in this way, starting from the bow and continuing towards the stern, with the ends of the planks in a group overlapping the previous set. The ends of the ceiling planks are finished in a variety of shapes, such as triangles, curves, and straight cut. Based on ceiling planks with intact ends—excluding C22 and C24 that appear to be exceptions—they are 1.16–1.36m long, 0.105–0.20m wide, and 1–15mm thick. Ceiling planks C22 and C24 were placed on each side of the mast-step timber. C22 is 3.08m long, 120–140mm wide, and 15–30mm thick. C24 is 2.10m long, and 32mm wide on average, and 20–33mm thick. These two ceiling planks are thought to be repair timbers and are notable for their larger dimensions, differences in colour and texture, and mismatch with the rest of the ceiling system. These may have been added because of wear, or to provide additional support to the mast-step timber over time. The ceiling stops at Fr5 to the bow, and there is a gap in the ceiling between Fr18 and Fr20 that, according to the finds, was the space used as stowage by the crew (Fig. 17). Ceiling was found in situ up to PS9 and empty nail holes on the innerface of some frames suggest the ceiling continued up to wale 2 (Fig. 17, see Fig. 39). No stringers were found: however, slight depressions, only about 1–2mm deep, observed on the upper ends of a few long futtocks along strake 9 indicate the existence of a stringer (Fig. 21). Towards the stern, bulkheads were constructed on frames Fr18 and Fr20. The starboard futtocks (Fr18-S1 and Fr20-S1) were attached with two treenails to the inner surface of the long arms of the floor-timbers (Fig. 22). A groove was cut in the top surface of futtock Fr18-P1, and it can be assumed that the missing port futtock Fr20-P1 also had a groove. There is a broken stanchion approximately 0.34m high, 0.14m wide, and 0.054m thick, attached to the inner surface of Fr18 with two dowels. The stanchion has grooves cut along two of its sides. Two dowels and a pressure mark placed side-by-side on floor-timber Fr20 suggest there was a second stanchion. The panels that would have been fitted in the grooves and the upper parts of the bulkhead structure were not found. The YK 12 vessel had spent a long time travelling on the seas as evidenced by the three layers of pitch found on its hull, each separated by mussel remains. Moreover, the inner surfaces of the planking and ceiling were in some places worn extremely thin. Despite this, few repairs have been identified. Indications of repairs following accidents were recorded on the port and starboard sides of the planking, possibly as a result of different events, based on differences in the workmanship and materials used. On the port side of the vessel towards the stern, there is a roughly shaped chestnut repair timber (PP4-2), about 0.54m long, between frames Fr16, Fr17, and Fr18, fitted in the third to fifth strakes (PP4 and PP5)(Fig. 23a). A cleanly cut and skilfully fitted repair plank about 0.57m long was identified on the starboard side of the vessel, towards the stern of the sixth strake (PS6-3), under Fr20, Fr21, and Fr22. This plank (PS6-3) was made of oak (Fig 23b). The arms of floor-timbers Fr21 and Fr22 were also broken and then stuck back together: grey resin was identified between the repaired parts of these frames (Fig. 23c). These frames are above the repair plank and were likely damaged in the same incident. Of C22 and C24, which are thought to be repairs to the ceiling as they differ from the other ceiling planking, C24 was made of plane wood. Splits and cracks that occurred in the planking, such as PS2-1, were repaired by being filled with pitch, caulking material, or grey resin. Many features, such as symmetry in the planking to starboard and port, very regular frame scantlings, carefully worked chamfers on the frames and mast-step timber, and well-cut floor-timber to futtock scarfs, and other standardized joints demonstrate that YK 12 was built with great care. In addition, as evidenced by the presence of unprocessed bark left on some floor-timbers, the builder was careful to use the materials economically and, whenever possible, two floor-timbers where cut from a single trunk (see below). Considering the properties of the wood used, it can be seen that the builder also consciously selected different species for specific uses on the vessel. These choices are indicative of balancing expenditure incurred during construction with both reducing the risks encountered on voyages and costs of repairs (Unger, 1980: 27). Seven tree species were used in the construction of the vessel: oak (Quercus L.), ash (Fraxinus L.), walnut (Juglans L.), chestnut (Castanea Miller), hornbeam (Carpinus L.), beech (Fagus orientalis L.) and plane (Platanus L.) (Akkemik, 2015: 43–47). This variety arises because species were selected according to the requirements of their positions in the vessel (Fig. 20). Chestnut, the strength of which increases as it gets wet, was used on all the planking (Akkemik, 2015: 188–189). Oak, which is water-resistant and hardwearing, was used for the wales (wale 1 and wale 3) and also preferred for floor-timbers and ceiling planks (Akkemik, 2015: 188–189). For the central keel 3, beech was used, while hornbeam was chosen for the curved keel 2 and 4 and the posts (keel 1 and keel 5). These species, which have high-friction and wear resistances, are the preferred construction material for keels of ships built in the Black Sea region of Anatolia (Nutku et al., 1963: 4; Dinçel et al., 1977: 82–85). For the futtocks in the upper part of the framing system, with less contact with water, ash was preferred (Akkemik, 2015: 188–189). The bulkhead timbers, and the mast-step timber were also processed from smooth, fibrous, and resistant ash. A plane tree (Platanus L.) timber was used for repair (C24) following the construction of the vessel. It is noted that the ceiling is a mixture of woods, as are the floor-timbers, while the planking is consistent. This could be an indication of the builder's focus on the shell in the lower hull. A similar consistency is seen in the futtocks which are cut from ash (Table 5). The grain structure is parallel to the length of the planks, which indicates that naturally curved trees were selected and used in the construction. This method, which prevents deformations and splits along the seams occasioned by internal stresses in the wood, is known from the traditional boats of several regions and is the preferred method used in the traditional Black Sea-built vessels, known as saçula (Pla Y Rave, 1996; Kaygın and Aytekin, 2005: 22). During timber studies, it was determined that two floor-timbers, of similar size, were extracted from a single trunk with one branch. For example, Fr12 was derived from the same trunk as Fr11; they have almost identical measurements and the grain structure and knots match (Fig. 24). According to the cross-sections taken at different places along the beech keel 3 it was determined that the heartwood, which is the strongest and most stable part of the log, was aligned before the keel was shaped. In the same way, the mast-step timber, which would be subject to a variety of stresses, was obtained from the heartwood of an ash log. Chestnut, ash and eastern beech used in the construction of YK 12 are abundant in the Black Sea region and were often used in ship construction (Nutku and Küçük, 1963). These tree species, which vary according to the part of the vessel, have been recorded in the traditional vessels of this region between the 16th century and the last quarter of the 20th century (Turna and Pirim, 2015: 119). The current natural range of these trees includes the Black Sea, Marmara, and the Aegean Regions. Bithynia and Paphlagonia woodlands were very suitable for shipbuilding in the Byzantine era (Morrisson, 2013). Akkemik, who carried out wood analysis of all the Yenikapı shipwrecks studied by IU, stated that in the vessels dated after the 7th century, timbers from the Black Sea-Marmara vicinity were used (Akkemik, 2015: 197). It is possible to ascertain which tools were used and how the wood was shaped from the different tool marks recorded, the shapes of the finished timbers, and the orientation of the wood grain. Also, similar marks related to certain tools are reported in other shipwrecks (Katzev, 1982; Hocker, 2004b). From the tool marks on the frames and planking of YK 12, it was determined that several different saw types were used. Planks were cut longitudinally using a saw as ascertained by the wide spacing of marks and the way they cross over each other at regular intervals (Fig. 25). Moreover, short saw marks detected at the ends of the planks, made in the opposite direction to the wide saw marks, indicate the use of smaller saws to adapt them to their individual positions. Generally, the frames have one sawn side, and one left round. The teeth marks left by the saw used are all at the same angle, very regular, with even and frequent intervals. These marks come from different directions and overlap in certain places. According to these marks, the carpenter started cutting from one end, the saw was removed before the turn and cutting recommenced from the other end (Fig. 25). On the round side of the floor-timbers, adze or axe marks can be seen, but no saw marks. The bark encountered on the surfaces was dubbed with an adze/axe, which shows that most parts were hewn first, rather than cut with a saw. Like the floor-timbers, one side of the futtocks was cut with a saw, while the other side was trimmed with an adze or axe. The floor-timber and futtock joints are carefully worked L-shaped scarfs. Tool marks show that floor-timbers and futtocks were trimmed with an adze after the two elements were joined together (Fig. 26a). Adze marks are also very clear in the limber-holes of the floor-timbers (Fig. 26b). The adze/axe marks are also observed on the chamfers of the side and bottom edges of the mast-step. Some planks have had traces of sawing erased by dubbing that has left them very smooth and with few marks. An adze was used on the surfaces of the planking and marks cross over the seams; thus, they were dubbed after the planking was assembled. Different sizes of adze used can be determined from blade marks of different widths. Saws were mostly used for major conversion of timber into planks and frames. Additionally, smaller hand saws were used for smoothing the transition from the curved keel timbers (keel 2, keel 4) with rabbets to the posts (keel 1 and keel 5) without rabbets, fitting the planking scarfs and shaping the plank ends. Clear adze/axe marks are visible especially on the curved side of the floor-timbers and futtocks and the floor-timber chamfers, the top and bottom surfaces of the keel members (Fig. 26c) and at the keel scarfs, and on the top, bottom and side surfaces of the mast-step timber. This indicates the use of adzes/axes for fine finishing timbers once joined, as well as shaping the main forms. These marks show that the adze and axe were the favoured tools for construction. Tool marks show that chisels were used to shape treenails, for cutting treenails to length, cutting and trimming scarfs and mortises (Fig. 26d), surface matching, and finishing. Chisels of different widths, and both straight and curved blades have been recognized from the tool marks (Katzev, 1982: 246–248). A sharp tool, such as an awl or knife, was used for marking the position of the floor-timbers on the inner face of planks, the locations of the plank-edge dowels, the end points of scarfs on the edges of the planks, and areas of timbers requiring additional shaping, as well as a series of special builder's marks of unknown function. Drill marks were identified in the treenail holes that connect the YK 12 hull elements. Some of these holes are believed to have been made with bow drills, examples of which were found in different sizes in the Yenikapı excavation area (Gökçay, 2010: 145). Holes 110/120, 150, and 170mm diameters were found indicating that drill bits of different sizes were used. Two wooden mallets were found in the stern of the vessel; these carpentry tools may have been for repair and maintenance during voyages, being similar to those used in construction (Denker et al., 2013: 200). The elements
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