Johann Sebastian Bach
2019; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Volume: 124; Issue: 9 Linguagem: Indonésio
10.1161/circresaha.119.315025
ISSN1524-4571
Autores Tópico(s)Bach Studies and Logistics Development
ResumoHomeCirculation ResearchVol. 124, No. 9Johann Sebastian Bach Free AccessResearch ArticlePDF/EPUBAboutView PDFView EPUBSections ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationsTrack citationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyReddit Jump toFree AccessResearch ArticlePDF/EPUBJohann Sebastian BachA Healer in His Time Peter Libby Peter LibbyPeter Libby Correspondence to Peter Libby, MD, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Ave Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115. Email E-mail Address: [email protected] From the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA. Originally published25 Apr 2019https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.315025Circulation Research. 2019;124:1303–1308Times were tough in the early 18th century in the states that we now know as Germany. The brutal Thirty Years' War had devastated the lands and the people.1 Epidemics of pestilence including Y. pestis infections had bedeviled the populace. Child mortality was tragically high. The medicine of the time offered few effective therapies. Illnesses that we can prevent today with vaccination and control readily with modern remedies too often led to early death, chronic health challenges, and disability. In an era before antibiotics, antidepressants, and psychotherapy, many sought solace at Sunday services at church.In the Saxon city Leipzig, a bustling commercial and intellectual center, Martin Luther's ecclesiastic legacy loomed large. Leipzig boasted a prominent university, and as a crossroads of commerce hosted an important trade fair (Leipziger Messe) thrice yearly. The University was the cradle of Leibnitz, who incubated the concepts of the calculus, and originated the notation we still use regularly in cardiology, as in dP/dt.The cantor at the city's major churches from 1723–1750, Johann Sebastian Bach, during a blazing, breathtaking, and prodigious period of productivity in the early 1720s composed over 2 annual cycles of church cantatas for performance during the weekly Sunday services. Close to 200 church cantatas of Bach survive, most composed during just his first 2 years as the Leipzig cantor. Up to 40% of this oeuvre is lost. The text and messages of these musical interludes corresponded to the sermon predicated by the church calendar for the particular Sunday of performance.These works comprise of a series of musical numbers that together usually last some 20 to 30 minutes. Many start by stating a problem, often a human dilemma of faith or very, very frequently confronting suffering, hardship, mental anguish, illness, or death as dictated by the Bible reading for that day. The pieces usually wend their way, often on a tortured path, to culminate in a kind of resolution, reconciliation, or resignation. The musical numbers include arias (sung by one or a few soloists), connected by recitatives and ariosos (commentaries more akin to speaking). Bach's church cantatas usually end with a chorale, a simple tune very familiar to the congregation since childhood, but harmonized by Bach with unequaled skill and variety. The chorale thus provided a measure of closure and comfort and served as punctuation to the emotional and spiritual journey just traversed.This structure of a typical Bach church cantata, akin to a Euclidian mathematical proof, often leads to a cathartic conclusion, the prescription for progress of a play for the theater put forth by Aristotle in his Poetics. Bach worked with a variety of librettists who wrote the liturgical poetry relevant to the lesson of that particular Sunday's sermon. The best texts permitted Bach to achieve to a sublime union between the words, music, and emotion.Bach's Sacred Vocal Works Helped the Congregation Deal With Illness, Suffering, and DeathGiven the historical and liturgical context, it is not surprising that suffering and death preoccupy this outpouring of Bach's church cantatas. Most congregants, like Bach himself, likely had close personal experience with early loss of parents, children, and a spouse. Death and daily struggle with illness were commonplace. Bach was orphaned at age 10, lost his first wife, and although he sired 20 children, only half survived to adulthood.2,3 In our interactions with patients as physicians, we strive today to combine our medical art with reassurance and encouragement. I argue that through the weekly struggles with the human condition he presented to congregants, Bach used his music as a balm and solace, probably for himself, and certainly for his audience. Bach was a healer of his time.Lessons to Us Today Across the Centuries From a Masterful Musical CommunicatorBach as a master communicator used words and music to convey his messages in his cantatas and the larger scale choral works (Passions, Masses, and Oratorios). His ability to engage his audience has endured over 300 years. Many of us in medicine strive to communicate effectively with each other and with our patients. We can only hope that our medical and scientific messages remain relevant for a few years, much less for several centuries. What lessons can we derive from Bach's works that can teach us to be more effective communicators (Table 1)? It is hardly outlandish for us to seek lessons in rhetoric from Bach's music, as much of the theory of Baroque music borrowed from the then supreme academic pursuit of rhetoric, based on Cicero and Quintilian.4 I have already alluded to one technique: providing a grounding in familiarity. The simple Lutheran chorale tunes often centuries old (some written by Luther himself in the 1500s, eg, "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God") not only usually conclude a cantata, but often weave into the complex fabric of the arias and choruses. Bach's audience knew the canon of chorale tunes the way an American school child knows the traditional Christmas carols, or as a regular churchgoer knows the familiar hymns.Table 1. What Might a Modern Medical Communicator Learn About Audience Engagement From a Musical Master of the Past?Mix the familiar with the new.Strive for variety.Offer something understandable and appealing to audience members ranging from beginners to connoisseurs.Think in layers of content in preparing a presentation to connect with all levels of listeners.No matter how intricate the underlying message and mechanisms, we should strive to make our presentations seem effortless and smooth. It is our job to work to make the audience's part easier.Do not be afraid to use rhythm and melody in medical presentations: modulate your voice, vary the pitch and tempo, and use pauses to keep the audience rapt and receptive to your message.Download figureDownload PowerPointFigure. This official portrait by E.G. Hoffman dated 1748 is an authentic depiction of Bach from life. Whereas an aristocrat might select a portrayal with a sword, Bach chose to hold a page of music, his own weapon of choice. The music on the page that the Leipzig cantor displays holds great interest. It is a riddle or puzzle Canon, a triplex canon for 6 voices, challenging viewers to realize the piece from the hints depicted. Fermat left a proposition for posterity to solve, Bach issues a challenge to resolve the puzzle on the page he holds in his portrait. Not incidentally, the portrait pointedly calls attention his mastery of counterpoint. For one solution to his musical puzzle and some of the legends and history behind this portrait see http://www.projectawe.org/blog/2015/9/1/the-13th-canon-portrait-of-js-bach (last accessed on January 27, 2019). The futurist thinker and astronomer Carl Sagan once queried the physician-biologist Lewis Thomas as to what he would include in the spaceship Voyager to send an emblem of human achievement to the Universe. Thomas is reputed to have replied "The complete works of Johann Sebastian Bach … but that would be boasting."1The musical numbers, although hardly secular in Bach's church cantatas, often use the rhythms of the popular dance forms of the day. I imagine many congregants in the Sunday audience would recognize the rhythmic structures they might have danced to at a Saturday party the night before: for example, allemande, courante, sarabande, minuet, bourée, siciliana, gavotte, and jig. The dance structures may have helped Bach compose when, confronting a deadline and facing a blank sheaf of paper ruled with musical staves, he pondered the text he needed to set to music. Perhaps he found some inspiration by imagining what dance would fit with the mood of the message and scan with the meter of the words. This liberal use of dance forms provided another element of familiarity to package the message for the audience. When we convey new or difficult information to each other or to our patients, we can use simple analogy or references to the familiar to help get our message across.Bach, as did his contemporaries, used word painting extensively to underscore the meaning of the words musically. Downward musical lines could depict physical or moral descent: for example, Adam's fall (BWV 637) or casting the powerful from their thrones: "Deposuit potentes de sede (BWV 243 #7)." Rising lines depicted ascent (eg, to heaven, to the Mount of Olives [BWV 244 #14]), or uplifting the downtrodden in "… et exaltavit humiles." (BWV 243 #7). We hear teardrops in the flutes accompanying the words "my teardrops" [die Tropfen meiner Zähren, BWV 244 #6]." The sound of flowing water in the instruments accompanies the words "Streams of salty tears …. [Bäche von gesaltznen Zähren, BWV 21 #5]." Reference to Judas' betrayal in the great St. Matthew Passion compares the traitorous apostle to a snake, whose reptilian motion the sinuous vocal line evokes (BWV 244 #8).Bach used notes foreign to the home musical key to emphasize certain words. Mention of Christ's cross invariably involves a sharp note (the German word for which is Kreutz: cross.) The syllable "trub" in words related to darkness or trouble is almost always on an unexpected accidental or a somber blue note, commanding the listener's attention. In several cantatas, the instruments imitate the ringing of funeral bells. The examples go on and on. When we present to an audience, although we do not sing, we can take a lesson from the baroque composers, and modulate our voices to lend our words dramatic weight based on their meaning and to avoid monotony. Heart imagery abounds in Bach's vocal works. Numerous cantatas (ca. 8) and many arias even have the word heart (Herz) in the title, but an in-depth exploration of that aspect, beyond the scope of this article, will require a separate essay.Bach's works, like much great art, operate on many levels. He had to appeal to a very diverse audience, as do we today in our technical presentations. Bach's audience included the clergy, merchants, city folk, and professors at the prominent Leipzig University. The surface layer of the cantatas appealed to all—melody (what melodies!), familiar rhythms, and the comfort of the chorales. But beneath the veneer, the cantatas contain complexities that help explain why these pieces endure, even if the listener is not conscious of or does not understand the mechanics at work beneath the superficial appeal. The pieces have embedded within structures and harmonic complexities that intrigue, capture us, and draw us into the subject matter, even if unconsciously for those who lack formal acquaintance with musical theory. In Bach's music, several strata of musical lines usually operate simultaneously.In this regard, one cannot discuss Bach's music without mentioning counterpoint. Contrapuntal music involves more than one musical line or voice (polyphony) and uses imitation between the voices according to rules of various degrees of strictness. Formal contrapuntal constructs include fugues (from the Latin for flight in the sense of chase) and canons (also known in English as rounds—consider "Frère Jacques" or "Row, Row, Row Your Boat" songs in which voices enter at different times and juxtapose). Bach was the undisputed and eternal master of counterpoint. He raised the craft of counterpoint to its summit. After Bach, no one could outdo him. No serious composer after Bach could resist looking back at Bach and try their hand at counterpoint. None reached his level of mastery of these intricately constructed puzzles. The mannerist movement that arose in Bach's later years, partly in reaction to the richness of the fugal formality of the high Baroque, reverted to monody—single voices elaborating themes serially (sonata form) rather than in parallel—Bach's trademark. Doric simplicity followed Corinthian complexity. But Bach's pieces please the listener esthetically, despite the underlying complicated contrapuntal constructs (save perhaps for purposeful deviations such as in the pedagogical and arcane "Art of the Fugue", BWV 1080). The overall beauty and cohesion conceal the technical gears and levers. The listener need not understand the mechanics of counterpoint to succumb to its spell. Yet, the underlying layers likely lend to the unending interest these pieces engender, and help explain why they have captivated listeners through the centuries.The keyboard work known as the Goldberg Variations illustrates Bach's mastery of musical camouflage (BWV 988). It starts and ends with a simple dance in a slow sarabande rhythm (1, 2, 3), that bookends an incredible voyage across 30 numbers, each based, often barely perceptibly, on the 8 first bass notes of the deceptively straightforward dance. The sections show wide variety, ranging across a spectrum of styles and human emotions. A first-time listener can sit back and enjoy the journey thoroughly, and be engrossed and entertained, without having any comprehension of the mathematical puzzle wrought beneath the surface: Every third number in this collection follows a formal imitative form: canon. Each of these canons feature the second voice entering one note higher than in the last canonical number, an intellectual and artistic feat of the highest order. Why every third number? Perhaps because of the Holy Trinity. Bach had a cabalistic intrigue with numerology. Or maybe merely because of the number of gradations in the usual diatonic scale could accommodate the composer's unimaginable feat.As teachers and lecturers, perhaps we should imitate this art, and aim to tell a seamless story that appears simple, entertaining, and approachable on the surface, but delivers the meat of the matter with seeming ease. If we do our job well, through hard work in advance, we can aspire to communicate and engage our audiences with a small measure of the enchantment that Bach achieved. In preparation of papers and talks, we should work meticulously so that the audience need not.Lessons in Variety, Virtuosity, and LeadershipBach's output encompassed dizzying diversity. He not only composed vocal works and keyboard pieces, but an array of instrumental compositions. It seems as if Bach wanted to put his stamp on all of the major musical genres of the day. Forty-eight preludes and fugues (the Well-Tempered Klavier, BWV 846–893), 4 orchestral suites (BWV 1066–1069), 6 keyboard partitas (BWV 825–830), 6 "French" Suites (BWV 812–817), 6 "English" suites (BWV 806–811), 6 cello suites (BWV 1007–1012), 6 sonatas and partitas for solo violin (BWV 1001–1006), and 6 concerti dedicated to the Margrave of Brandenberg among many others. These Brandenberg concerti (BWV 1046–1051) use an astonishingly varied instrumental palette, each featuring a different combination of solo and accompanying instruments (ripieno) displaying Bach's mastery of sonority. Each Brandenberg Concerto has special attributes, but the fifth features a break-out for the keyboard that presaged the modern piano concerto. This piece elevated the keyboard to solo status from mere accompaniment and includes a precedent-breaking written out cadenza that incidentally gives us a glimpse into Bach's renowned improvisational prowess. The instrumentation in the cantatas and passions also displays inventive variety. Bach evokes special effects with unusual instruments, among many examples the viola d'amore in "Erwege" in the John Passion (BWV 245, #20), the viola da gamba in "Geduld" and "Komm, süßes Kreutz" in the Matthew Passion (BWV 244, #35 and 57), and unusually in "Laß Fürstin …." (BWV 198): pairs of oboi d'amore, viole da gamba, and lutes. Bach used all of the instrumental colors at his disposal to convey his messages to enthrall his listener and keep him or her raptly attentive.Although Bach had a very limited personal geographic ambit, he acquired a much broader artistic exposure. He studied voraciously not only Germanic predecessors (eg, Buxtehude) but eagerly sought to master Italian and other styles, a key to the variety that characterizes his work. He arranged concerti of Vivaldi, assumed themes of Albinoni and Marcello, and parodied Pergolesi (Tilge Höchster, BWV 1083) and others. Bukofzer credited Bach with the "fusion of national syles."5 In our work and writing, we can take a lesson from Bach's ability to command an array of styles and infuse our writing with variety. Medical/scientific writing does not have to be boring.Bach was himself a legendary virtuoso. His keyboard dominance was well known. He was a supreme organist, and his organ works demanded fleet feet as well as dexterous fingers given the pedal parts he wrote. He must have been a superior string player as well, as in one of his earlier courtly posts he served as the concertmaster (the first violinist who would play the solo parts). When playing a string instrument in ensembles, however, he relinquished the first violin desk, forsook second fiddle, and preferred to play the viola part. According to his son Karl Philipp Emmanuel, he felt that he could assess the balance better seated in the middle of the string choir. This choice conveys a leadership lesson for us today. We may lead more effectively if at times we can cede the limelight, let the other members of the team shine, and embed ourselves firmly in the center of the fray of our enterprise to listen and hear better.Human Dimensions of a Supreme Creative Genius: Bach Was a Careerist and Had Problems With AuthorityBach was always on the lookout for next job or courtly appointment. He was ambitious, and not modest, despite his protestations. He could be a wily negotiator. He applied for numerous posts and sent compositions to prospective patrons or employers as we would send a curriculum vitae with reprints today. The Brandenburg Concerti and the Kyrie and Gloria of what became much later the majestic "Mass in b minor (BWV 232)" accompanied specific job applications.1–3,6 Bach negotiated fringe benefits with his compensation packages, including such perquisites as firewood and pails of beer, as well as a bit of brandy.2,3 At times, these libations might have helped him to forebear his multitude of children packed in close quarters.Bach engaged in outside consulting, often well compensated, on the construction of organs. He ran side businesses of renting musical instruments and publishing and selling books of the words to his cantatas and of some of his compositions. He composed and played for funerals (there were many) and weddings to generate extra income. He likewise wrote pieces to celebrate the birthdays of aristocratic patrons, actual and prospective. The obsequiousness of some the texts and dedications of these compositions even exceed that of the cover letters that we write today to editors and peer reviewers as supplicants for favor. One motivation for Bach's move to Leipzig was to afford his (male!) children access to a first-rate University education. He himself had suffered indignities because he had no University degree himself, in contrast to many of his contemporary competitors.Bach very often clashed with his supervisors, and even spent some time in jail for insubordination. He felt perennially that he was unsupported and underappreciated by his employers. He presented a whitepaper on the resources he deemed necessary to mount a proper program of church music to the authorities in Leipzig that went largely unheaded. He had to take turns on call as a monitor in the dormitory housing the sometimes unruly boys of the music school attached to his main church in Leipzig. He was supposed to teach a Latin class to these music students, but generally managed to outsource this task to moonlighters he hired for coverage. The cantor's 18th-century struggles seem not so distant from those we encounter in academic cardiology today: too little recognition from superiors, inadequate compensation, not enough space, equipment, or personnel, and time on call infringing on our creative work.These circumstances led to disillusionment, disappointment, and deception after Bach's initial years in Leipzig. He had created an indelible and unmatched monument of human accomplishment by composing 2 annual cycles of weekly church cantatas in 2 years [as well as the "Magnificat, BWV 243" and "St. John Passion, BWH 245"], masterpieces that he felt were taken for granted or even criticized for their complexity by the church elders and the town fathers. Bach turned more of his energies away from his day job at the churches. He took on the direction of the Collegium Musicum, a nonecclesiastical ensemble, and performed with them to regale audiences at Zimmermans, an upscale local coffee house. They must have played to packed houses during the regular commercial fairs!Bach became embroiled in a professional controversy as well, regarding his art, that gave rise to considerable polemic.1,3 Critics accused him of a stuffy style and viewed him as a ponderous anachronism. He stubbornly declined to abandon the polyphonic contrapuntal Baroque compositional vocabulary and continued to raise it to ever greater heights (eg, in the Art of the Fugue, BWV 1080). The "Musical Offering, BWV 1079" to Fredrick the Great, his son Karl Philipp Emmanuel's employer (both sovereign and son preferred the more modern "style galant"), made the point very clearly to cognoscenti that he could adapt to the new style should he so choose, but that he chose to remain resolutely and deliberately determined not bend to contemporary fashion for its own sake.7,8Bach Did Have a Lighter SideThe severity of the content of the church cantatas, the apparent austerity of much of the instrumental work, and his ornery streak, might lead one to believe that this stolid bewigged and devoted Lutheran church functionary lacked a sense of humor (Figure). Oh, but he did have a lighter side. The secular vocal pieces that have come down to us show this best. "The Coffee Cantata" (BWV 211) resembles the commedia del arte in its portrayal of a strong-willed daughter who outfoxes her strict father so that she can indulge in drinking coffee, risqué behavior for a well-bred bourgeoise maiden of the time. In Cantata BWV 201, careful listeners may hear a depiction of the braying of a donkey. Even within the highly formalized structure of the "Goldberg Variations," Bach weaves in the tunes of rather ribald and earthy folk songs near the journey's end (in the quodlibet, variation 30). These few surviving examples give us a glimpse of the musical jokes and games rumored to have abounded at Bach family gatherings.Do You Have to Be Lutheran to Love Bach?Bach was a dedicated Bible scholar. His marginalia even correct errors or incomplete quotes or misquotes in the well-thumbed commentary on the Luther Bible by Calov that he possessed.9 He was doubtless devout. The cantatas are laced and laden with exegetical content.1 Must one share Bach's confession and faith to enjoy and profit from his art? The profound explorations of the depths of the human condition in Bach's sacred works transcend any labels. They offer succor and comfort even today to those who take the trouble to connect, regardless of religious affiliation or lack thereof. Bach's works provide a wellspring of human understanding, which invites all of us to partake should we care to share.Part of the job description of a cantor in Bach's time and place was composing Good Friday passion music. This task required setting to music the gospel texts for the occasion. Some of the passages in the passion settings of the period including Bach's great surviving Matthew and John passions (BWV 244 & 245), particularly the turba or crowd scenes, using the prescribed texts, have caused some concerns in modern times?10 It seems that one cannot present a contemporary performance of these passions without an accompanying explanatory, apologetic, or exculpatory seminar regarding culpability for Christ's conviction. Many approaches have addressed this issue. Bach's passions portray human emotions and dilemmas at the extremes. They center on humankind's capacity for inhumanity, and how easily mob rule and evil can submerge justice, goodness, and love. These themes transcend the identity of one tribe or another in the works. Do the early 18th century labels detract from the universal and ageless messages for us all? The lessons regarding the human condition, and the evil we confront perpetually, supersede the tribalism of the ancient texts. The ineffable beauty, imposing architecture, and magnificence of the art, itself a testament to the potential of the human spirit, by far outweigh the parochial opposition of those who question the performance of the passions.Can a Modern Physician Learn About Healing From Bach's Work?Karl Marx famously portrayed religion as "the opiate of the people." In today's increasingly secular society, we confront an epidemic of actual opiate abuse. Perhaps we can take a lesson from Bach's art, as we practice modern medicine with her increasingly technology-dependent tools (Table 2). A contemplation of Bach's corpus of church cantatas reminds us that we must not forsake our holistic mission as physicians. He shows us that words can succor the sick and suffering. We physicians have a duty to heal the spirit as well as the flesh. We must remember that comfort comes not only from a prescription pad or a cardiovascular procedure, but also from each practitioner's own ability as a human to heal the heart, not just literally, but also figuratively. We can take inspiration from great art, and particularly from Bach, a healer of his time, to motivate us, beyond wielding our pills and procedures, to provide comfort, solace, and reassurance to each patient in every encounter.Table 2. What Might a Modern Physician Learn About Healing From a Musical Master of the Past?State the problem clearly at the outset of a conversation.Do not deny the truth, and acknowledge of the gravity of the medical situation and the personal struggle of the patient and family.Offer optimism you can believe in yourself.Use your words to succor the sick and aid their passage.End each encounter with a note of hope—you can always find some honest ground for encouragement, no matter how bleak the prognosis.If you cannot offer a cure, work toward resolution and providing comfort.Our job as healers today may be easier than in Bach's day due to medical advances, but is also harder, due to the more diverse set of beliefs and cultures among those we serve. We must embrace this diversity as we apply the fundamental principles enunciated above in a culturally appropriate manner for each individual patient and family.AcknowledgmentsThis unusual article owes its genesis to a mutual admiration of J.S. Bach's music by Circulation Research Editor in Chief Roberto Bolli and the author. Dr Bolli suggested that I write a piece about Bach for Circulation Research. I hesitated, as I am neither a musician nor a Bach expert, merely a devoted and humble amateur yet avid listener. I ultimately succumbed to Dr Bolli's persistence and gentle persuasion. When I mention a specific piece of music, I include its number from Schmieder's Bachs Werke Verzeichnis (BWV), a thematic index of Bach's works.11 The reader can readily find the excerpts on Youtube or other sources available on the internet should he or she wish to listen. I thank Dr Lisa Rosenbaum, Dr Vern Falby, and Prof Christoph Wolff for their careful reading and useful suggestions.Sources of FundingP. Libby is supported by a grant from the RRM Charitable Fund.DisclosuresP. Libby serves on the Board of Directors of Emmanuel Music (http://emmanuelmusic.org) based at Emmanuel Church in Boston, MA, an ensemble that performs a cantata as part of the liturgy on Sundays. This web site contains the texts and translations of all of the choral works of Bach for ready reference.FootnotesCorrespondence to Peter Libby, MD, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Ave Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115. Email [email protected]harvard.eduReferences1. Gardiner JE. Bach: Music in the Castle of Heaven. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; 2014.Google Scholar2. Wolff C. The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company; 1999.Google Scholar3. Wolff C. Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company; 2000.Google Scholar4. Dreyfus L. Bach and the Patterns of Invention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1996.Google Scholar5. Bukofzer MF. Music In The Baroque Era - From Monteverdi To Bach. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company; 1947.Google Scholar6. Marissen M. The Social and Religious Designs of J.S. Bach's Brandenburg Concertos. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press; 1955.Google Scholar7. Gaines JR. Evening in the Palace of Reason: Bach Meets Frederick the Great in the Age of Enlightenment. New York, NY: Harper Perennial; 2014.Google Scholar8. Berger K. Bach's Cycle, Mozart's Arrow: An Essay on the Origins of Musical Modernity. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press; 2007.CrossrefGoogle Scholar9. Marissen M. Bach & God. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 2016.CrossrefGoogle Scholar10. Marissen M. Lutheranism, Anti-Judaism, and Bach's St. John Passion: With an Annotated Literal Translation of the Libretto. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 1998.Google Scholar11. Bach JS, Schmieder W. Thematisch-systematisches Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke Johann Sebastian Bachs. Bach- Werke- Verzeichnis (BWV). Weisbaden, Germany: Breitkopf & Härtel Musikverlag; 1961.Google Scholar Previous Back to top Next FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited By Libby P (2021) The changing Nature of atherosclerosis: what we thought we knew, what we think we know, and what we have to learn , European Heart Journal, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab438, 42:47, (4781-4782), Online publication date: 14-Dec-2021. April 26, 2019Vol 124, Issue 9 Advertisement Article InformationMetrics © 2019 American Heart Association, Inc.https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.315025PMID: 31021721 Originally publishedApril 25, 2019 KeywordsmortalityvaccinationepidemicssermonpsychotherapyPDF download Advertisement SubjectsEthics and PolicyMental HealthRehabilitation
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