Physiology and fast marathons
2020; American Physiological Society; Volume: 128; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019
ISSN8750-7587
AutoresMichael J. Joyner, Sandra K. Hunter, Alejandro Lucía, Andrew M. Jones,
Tópico(s)Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
ResumoViewpointPhysiology and fast marathonsMichael J. Joyner, Sandra K. Hunter, Alejandro Lucia, and Andrew M. JonesMichael J. JoynerDepartment of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, Sandra K. HunterExercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Alejandro LuciaUniversidad Europea de Madrid, Department of Sport Sciences, and Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain, and Andrew M. JonesDepartment of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United KingdomPublished Online:15 Apr 2020https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019This is the final version - click for previous versionMoreSectionsPDF (417 KB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat INTRODUCTIONOver the past 2 years the marathon world record for both men (2:01:39, h:min:s, Eliud Kipchoge, Berlin, 2018) and women (2:14:04, Brigid Kosgei, Chicago, 2019) has been broken in events sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). In exhibitions not sanctioned by the IAAF the marathon distance has been covered in 1:59:41 by Eliud Kipchoge of Kenya. Over the last 30 years, the improvement in the world record is just over five minutes for men and seven minutes for women (2) or ~4–5% (Fig. 1). By contrast, the world record for the 1,500-m run has improved by ~1–2% for both sexes (1) during that time. Differences in the world record improvements between the marathon and shorter distance races are even more stark over the last 20 years for both men and women (Fig. 1). In this Viewpoint we offer physiologically informed discussion about why marathon times have fallen so dramatically recently. Our discussion builds on several papers published in the Journal of Applied Physiology and other journals over many years, including our own (7, 8, 12, 18, 21, 23, 24).Fig. 1.World record (WR) improvements in the 1,500 m, 5 km, 10 km, and marathon for men and women over the last 20 years (1999 to 2019) (A) and 30 years (1989 to 2019) (B). Greater improvements are observed in the marathon relative to the shorter distances for both sexes, particularly over the last 20 years. Data from World Athletics (42).Download figureDownload PowerPointPHYSIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONSThe main determinants of endurance exercise performance in general and the marathon more specifically are 1) maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max), 2) the maximum running intensity (or percentage of V̇o2max) that can be sustained during long time periods, and 3) running economy (RE, a surrogate for efficiency because calculations of true mechanical efficiency during running are difficult to make). V̇o2max sets the upper limit of aerobic metabolism that can be achieved by a given individual. The fractional utilization of V̇o2max reflects the ability to sustain high intensities before lactate starts to accumulate in blood—the so-called "lactate threshold" (LT) —that is, before the rate of glycogenolysis is markedly increased. Together they delineate a performance V̇o2. Running economy (RE) describes the O2 cost of submaximal but high running speeds (e.g., marathon pace). RE therefore essentially "translates" the performance V̇o2 into the sustainable marathon running speed.Although the exact V̇o2max values for Eliud Kipchoge and Brigid Kosgei have not been reported, it is safe to say that they are likely to be very high, but unlikely to be out of the range of values reported for elite male and female endurance athletes since the 1960s and 1970s (31, 32). In this context, data from one of the runners involved in the 2017 "Breaking2" effort had a V̇o2max of 83 mL·min−1·kg−1 (28a). Data collected at the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory in the 1930s on elite male middle distance runners demonstrated that these individuals had V̇o2max values (~75 mL·min−1·kg−1) clearly in the range of those seen in today's champions (35). The relevance of these early observations to long distance runners is simply that they show limited training can be associated with very high V̇o2max values, and that factors beyond V̇o2max are critical for fast times.Likewise Kipchoge and Kosgei likely have LT values that are 80–85% of V̇o2max or perhaps higher, and while this range is generally considered the upper limit for the LT, a recent case study in a champion master athlete suggests that LTs at even higher fractions of V̇o2max might be possible. In this context, comprehensive data on LT values in elite marathon runners (sub 2:10 for men and 2:25 for women) is a major knowledge gap at this time.RE is also an area where Kipchoge and Kosgei, who are the current world record holders in the men's and women's marathon, respectively, may excel. Better than average RE is one reason given for the success of East African runners over the last six decades starting with Abebe Bikila's victory in the marathon at the Rome Olympics in 1960. A higher RE has been demonstrated in elite Kenyan runners (38) and in runners from other parts of Africa compared with their Caucasian counterparts (28, 41). Better RE cannot be explained by differences in muscle fiber type as this is similar in Kenyan and Caucasian runners; however, this comparison is limited because it did not match the Kenyan and Caucasian runners for performance or other variables (37). A difference exists in body mass index (BMI) and body shape, and the Kenyans longer, slender legs could be advantageous as the energy cost of running is a function of leg mass (26). However, the current data suggest that the better RE of East-African runners does not necessarily have a biomechanical basis (39). Of note, two great marathoners from the 1960s and 1970s, Frank Shorter (USA) and Derek Clayton (Australia), had relatively modest V̇o2max values for elite runners (~70–71 mL·min−1·kg−1) but superb RE (32). Again, as is the case with the LT, there are few data available in large groups of elite runners on RE at high speeds (>20 km/h) (4). Additionally, there are even fewer data on overground versus treadmill running at these speeds, and little is known about how RE might deteriorate over time during hours of fast running (33). Taken together, however, it is apparent that, for success, elite marathon runners must have extremely good running economy, and this likely underlies much of the success of Kipchoge and Kosgei.TRAININGWhile less is known about Kosgei's training, Kipchoge often trains in excess of 200 km/wk at high altitude. His training includes interval training such as 10 × 1 km or 30 × 1 min runs at high speed with a minute of jogging between fast runs. He also regularly completes 30 km and even 40 km training runs which start easy but end fast (so-called tempo runs) (12a). While this is an impressive training load it has its roots in the high-volume and high-intensity training programs that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. In the context of V̇o2max, the data from the 1930s suggest that modest volumes of high-intensity training (~40 km/wk) are likely sufficient for talented individuals to reach the upper limit of their biological potential for V̇o2max (35). Of note, while biological talent clearly exists for endurance performance, pinning down a genetic signature associated with a very high V̇o2max and linking any gene variants to the deterministic physiological pathways including cardiac output and red blood cell mass remains elusive (20). In fact, a recent genomewide scan association study including Kenyan runners among other world-class elite endurance athletes with very high V̇o2max values failed to identify a panel of genomic variants common to these athletes compared with their nonathletic controls (34).By contrast, hours per day of training are likely responsible for the very high LT values seen in elite marathon runners. Training of this duration evokes significant increases in the mitochondrial content of the trained skeletal muscles and also increases skeletal muscle capillary density (9, 16). Both factors are critical determinants of the LT.RE is difficult to study and it is unclear how trainable it is. The former women's world record holder (Paula Radcliffe 2:15:25, London, 2003) was followed over many years, and her RE improved dramatically (19). This might have been due to subtle differences in her stride, changes in the mechanical properties of her muscles and tendons, and perhaps a shift in her skeletal muscle myosin to a more efficient isoform. While skeletal muscle myosin shifts in response to short-term training interventions are modest, data from a pair of identical twins highly divergent for physical activity over decades suggest that marked changes are possible (3).TECHNOLOGY AND LOGISTICSRecent improvements in running shoes that include a carbon plate in the midsole surrounded by more resilient foam have been shown to improve running economy in the laboratory by ~4% (17). The extent to which the improvements measured in the laboratory translate into improved performances on the road is hard to assess, but it is interesting to note that the world records of both Kipchoge and Kosgei are roughly 80 s faster than the previous records in "standard" shoes. This suggests an improvement of ~1% in real-world conditions. The new shoe technology also has some parallels to "tuned" running tracks that were developed in the 1970s and thought to improve performance by several percent (29).Along these lines, it is interesting to note that improved performances in cycling, swimming, and speed skating have all leveraged technology to improve efficiency. In the case of cycling and swimming, aerobikes and tech suits reduce "drag," and in the case of speed skating, the hinged skate adds an additional lever as the skater pushes off. Both cycle configuration and the rider's body position are regulated, as are swim suits. The extent to which shoe technology will be regulated will be of interest as more companies attempt to make "faster" shoes, and in the late 1960s brush spiked shoes thought to be advantageous for the then new synthetic running tracks were banned (33a).Beyond running shoes, and consistent with the observations above about the relative lack of knowledge about RE along with the role that enhanced efficiency has played in other endurance sports, the exhibition efforts of Kipchoge to break 2 h are instructive. For both the 2017 (2:00:25) and 2019 (1:59:41) performances by Kipchoge, every effort was made to enhance his RE including by drafting behind a team of runners to reduce wind resistance, even pacing to reduce psychological and physiological strain, and use of a flat course with minimal turns. Carbohydrate feeding was also used to maximize availability of this type of substrate—which is more oxygen-efficient than fat (25) —to working muscles. Both Kosgei, and before her, Radcliffe, were paced in their very fast times for ~90% of the race distance, and the fastest unpaced time for women is in the 2:17 range. This time gap along with Kipchoge's performances in the 2017 and 2019 exhibition events suggests that optimal drafting and pacing could potentially improve a very fast marathon by ~2 min.One unfortunate "technological" note that must be addressed when discussing any exceptional performance in today's environment is the possibility that performance-enhancing drugs can play a role. First, it is critical to point out that the athletes involved in these performances have passed numerous drug tests. Second, it is also important to point out that drug testing seems to have improved over the last 15 years and that as a result many world records have remained relatively stagnant from a time when doping was harder to detect. However, so-called microdosing of key compounds can be used in ways that avoid detection, and many of the highest profile drugs-related athlete and coach bans have come not from testing but via standard investigative techniques used by regulatory and legal authorities.CONVERGENCE OF FACTORS AND PERSPECTIVESThe very fast marathon performances seen recently are likely due to highly talented and exceptionally trained athletes with excellent RE and very high-performance V̇o2 competing with better equipment under improved conditions for both men and women. Of note, both the male and female world record holders are East African (Kenyan) with 10.2% sex difference in times. This ~10% sex difference in the world record has varied minimally over the last 15 years and represents physiological differences between elite males and females, mostly dictated by the larger V̇o2max in males. Men usually have a larger heart size and thus greater stroke volume, larger muscle mass, less body fat, greater blood hemoglobin concentration, and consequently a higher V̇o2max than women (22, 40). While elite male runners usually have a V̇o2max of ~70–85 mL·kg−1·min−1, elite females have been recorded at ~60–75 mL·kg−1·min−1 (5, 11, 19, 23, 30, 32, 36) representing a ~10% difference for those in the elite range within each sex. LT and RE also determine marathon performance and do not typically differ between elite male and female runners (5, 10, 13, 14, 22, 27). Unlike in the past, opportunities are becoming more equitable for the sexes, and so with the emergence of East African women runners who have lagged in dominance behind the men by ~10 years (18), it is not surprising that the new female record holder is Kenyan.Like Bannister's sub 4-min mile in 1954, Kipchoge's sub 2-h marathon in 2019 featured pacemakers, drafting, improved shoes, and significant science (6). 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Jones15 April 2020 | Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 128, No. 4 More from this issue > Volume 128Issue 4April 2020Pages 1065-1068 Copyright & PermissionsCopyright © 2020 the American Physiological Societyhttps://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019PubMed31944889History Received 18 November 2019 Accepted 13 January 2020 Published online 15 April 2020 Published in print 1 April 2020 Metrics
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