Commentaries on Viewpoint: Physiology and fast marathons
2020; American Physiological Society; Volume: 128; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1152/japplphysiol.00167.2020
ISSN8750-7587
AutoresFernando González‐Mohíno, Fernando González‐Mohíno, José María, Perrey, Arthur H. Dewolf, Arthur Yates, B Flores Antón, Anton Ušaj, José Manuel González-Rayas, José Manuel, Ana Lilia Rayas‐Gómez, Ana Lilia, José Manuel González-Yáñez, José Lepers, Paul J. Stapley, Paul Louis, Julien Proessl, Felix Nikolaidis, Patrizia Knechtle, Muniz-Pumares, D. Hunter, Bill Bottoms, Bastien Bontemps, Bastien, Pedro L. Valenzuela, Daniel Boullosa, Del Coso, Juan Blagrove, Richard B. Hayes, D. Almeida, Costa Campos, Yuri Alexsander Tavares Pereira, G. López et al,
Tópico(s)Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise
ResumoViewpointCommentaries on Viewpoint: Physiology and fast marathonsPublished Online:15 Apr 2020https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00167.2020This article has been correctedMoreSectionsPDF (225 KB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat COMMENTARY ON VIEWPOINT: PHYSIOLOGY AND FAST MARATHONSJordan Santos-Concejero,1 Fernando González-Mohíno,23 and José María González-Ravé2.Author Affiliations1Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.2University of Castilla-La Mancha, Sport Training Lab, Toledo, Spain.3Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain.to the editor: An essential addition to the Viewpoint of Joyner et al. (3) is to consider how the pacing strategies of word record (WR) holders have changed in the last decades (1). As such, from 1967 to 1988, athletes used to start off faster than the goal speed needed to break the WR, and due to these unsustainable initial speeds, they displayed significant speed losses in the second half of the race. However, since 1988, it seems that the pacing strategy has moved from a positive to a negative profile, with athletes speeding up from the 25th km to the finish line (1). The trend toward smaller pace variations between 5-km sections in recent WRs also suggests that a more stable pacing, with an average speed almost equal for the whole race, may be the pacing goal for future WR seekers. One way of ensuring such a stable pace is a careful selection of the course profile. For example, for the “Breaking2” attempt, Nike looked for a course as flat as possible (Monza, Italy), and in the subsequent Ineos 1:59 Challenge, Kipchoge ran on a flat course with only 2.4 m of elevation change. Within the conventional WR eligible races, Berlin, one of the most likely candidates in terms of potential venues for future WR attempts (2), is relatively flat (starts at an elevation of 38 m above sea level and never exceeds 53 m), and has a net downhill profile over the final 15 km.REFERENCES1. Díaz JJ, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Santos-Concejero J. The influence of pacing strategy on marathon world records. Eur J Sport Sci 18: 781–786, 2018. doi:10.1080/17461391.2018.1450899. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Díaz JJ, Renfree A, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Torres M, Santos-Concejero J. Pacing and performance in the 6 world marathon majors. Front Sports Act Living 1: 54, 2019. doi:10.3389/fspor.2019.00054.Crossref | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Díaz JJ, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Santos-Concejero J. The influence of pacing strategy on marathon world records. Eur J Sport Sci 18: 781–786, 2018. doi:10.1080/17461391.2018.1450899. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Díaz JJ, Renfree A, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Torres M, Santos-Concejero J. Pacing and performance in the 6 world marathon majors. Front Sports Act Living 1: 54, 2019. doi:10.3389/fspor.2019.00054.Crossref | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google ScholarBETTER ENGAGEMENT DURING FAST MARATHONSStephane Perrey.Author AffiliationsEuroMov Digital Health in Motion, University of Montpellier, IMT Mines Ales, Montpellier, France.to the editor: We would like to comment on the Viewpoint by Joyner et al. (3). Research has outlined that elite marathon runners possess excellent running economy among other well-known physiological and biomechanical determinants (2). Not only is whole body dynamic exercise metabolically costly, but neural processing effort, requiring the brain’s limited metabolic resources, continually occurs during prolonged exercise (4), notably for self-paced exercise like running a marathon. Under the umbrella of energy saving, executive functioning capacity resting on goal-oriented behavior may also explain differences in endurance performance even at top levels. First, executive function may be predictive of endurance performance (1): faster runners would have better inhibitory control, not only over motor responses but also over interfering, distracting information. Further, the elite athletes through deliberate practice over the years may have developed the ability to execute their patterns free of much frontal cortex participation. Neuroimaging studies corroborate this idea, as prefrontal cortex activity is seen to decrease in elite Kenyan runners (5). Second, effective pacing involving cognitive control and decision-making process is crucial to endurance performance. As highlighted (2), optimal pacing was an important factor in the exhibition event to break the 2-h barrier. Given that marathon might be seen as an effortful cognitive task that places high demands on several brain areas related to emotional, motivational, interoception, and executive processing, pacing assistance would be valuable in reaching an automatic mode to divert resources effortlessly and when needed. Thus, we can assume that this strategic conservation of mental effort resources through pacing aid may lead to hypofrontality phenomenon (4) and the so-called neural efficiency.REFERENCES1. Cona G, Cavazzana A, Paoli A, Marcolin G, Grainer A, Bisiacchi PS. It’s a matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PLoS One 10: e0132943, 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132943. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar2. Joyner MJ, Coyle EF. Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol 586: 35–44, 2008. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Radel R, Brisswalter J, Perrey S. Saving mental effort to maintain physical effort: a shift of activity within the prefrontal cortex in anticipation of prolonged exercise. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 17: 305–314, 2017. doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0480-x. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Santos-Concejero J, Billaut F, Grobler L, Oliván J, Noakes TD, Tucker R. Brain oxygenation declines in elite Kenyan runners during a maximal interval training session. Eur J Appl Physiol 117: 1017–1024, 2017. doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3590-4. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Cona G, Cavazzana A, Paoli A, Marcolin G, Grainer A, Bisiacchi PS. It’s a matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PLoS One 10: e0132943, 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132943. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar2. Joyner MJ, Coyle EF. Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol 586: 35–44, 2008. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Radel R, Brisswalter J, Perrey S. Saving mental effort to maintain physical effort: a shift of activity within the prefrontal cortex in anticipation of prolonged exercise. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 17: 305–314, 2017. doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0480-x. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Santos-Concejero J, Billaut F, Grobler L, Oliván J, Noakes TD, Tucker R. Brain oxygenation declines in elite Kenyan runners during a maximal interval training session. Eur J Appl Physiol 117: 1017–1024, 2017. doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3590-4. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarPHYSIOLOGY AND FAST MARATHONS: “THE PROPULSIVE AND MUSCULAR EFFICIENCY,” KEYSTONES OF RUNNING PERFORMANCEArthur H. Dewolf.Author AffiliationsDepartment of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.to the editor: Joyner et al. (5) in their Viewpoint left no stone unturned in their search for determinants of Kipchoge’s world record. However, they poorly defined the “mechanical efficiency,” which should be clarified since it is a key parameter of running performance.The minimum, inevitable, work that Kipchoge et al. did to cross the finish line is given by the external frictional drag times the 42.195 km. The overall efficiency can thus be expressed as the ratio between this minimum work and the chemical energy transformed by the muscles (2). It can be also defined as the product of the “muscular efficiency,” indicating the ability to transform chemical energy into muscle work, and the “propulsive efficiency,” indicating the ability to utilize the muscle work to move the body against the wind resistance.While Kipchoge’s recent performance may be partly explained by lower drag due to his body shape and drafting, the recent improvements of running performances are certainly closely related to an enhancement of muscular efficiency. For instance, trained subjects can exploit better the dynamic coupling between segments to save mechanical energy than untrained (1). Additionally, smaller muscle-tendons (and shoes!) hysteresis in athletes (3) reduces the imbalance between energy dissipation and generation, a major determinant of the running cost (4).Scientific contributions on fatigue resistance, muscle strengthening, and training intensity have potentially led to biochemical and neuromechanical adaptations, improving efficiency. Even a small enhancement of the role played by elasticity may especially impact long-distance performances, by reducing muscular fatigue over a huge number of steps.REFERENCES1. Bianchi L, Angelini D, Lacquaniti F. Individual characteristics of human walking mechanics. Pflugers Arch 436: 343–356, 1998. doi:10.1007/s004240050642. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Cavagna GA. Symmetry and asymmetry in bouncing gaits. Symmetry (Basel) 2: 1270–1321, 2010. doi:10.3390/sym2031270.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar3. da Rosa RG, Oliveira HB, Gomeñuka NA, Masiero MPB, da Silva ES, Zanardi APJ, de Carvalho AR, Schons P, Peyré-Tartaruga LA. Landing-takeoff asymmetries applied to running mechanics: a new perspective for performance. Front Physiol 10: 415, 2019. doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00415. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar4. Dewolf AH, Willems PA. Running on a slope: A collision-based analysis to assess the optimal slope. J Biomech 83: 298–304, 2019. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.024. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Bianchi L, Angelini D, Lacquaniti F. Individual characteristics of human walking mechanics. Pflugers Arch 436: 343–356, 1998. doi:10.1007/s004240050642. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Cavagna GA. Symmetry and asymmetry in bouncing gaits. Symmetry (Basel) 2: 1270–1321, 2010. doi:10.3390/sym2031270.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar3. da Rosa RG, Oliveira HB, Gomeñuka NA, Masiero MPB, da Silva ES, Zanardi APJ, de Carvalho AR, Schons P, Peyré-Tartaruga LA. Landing-takeoff asymmetries applied to running mechanics: a new perspective for performance. Front Physiol 10: 415, 2019. doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00415. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar4. Dewolf AH, Willems PA. Running on a slope: A collision-based analysis to assess the optimal slope. J Biomech 83: 298–304, 2019. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.024. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google ScholarNEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION: THE POWER BEHIND FAST MARATHONSBrandon A. Yates,12.Author Affiliations1Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University-Purdue University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana.2Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal Health, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana.to the editor: I appreciate the physiologically informed discussion presented in the Viewpoint by Joyner et al. (3), highlighting the potential mechanisms underpinning the recent marathon performances by Eliud Kipchoge and Brigid Kosgei. The authors note that at the elite level maximal oxygen uptake of endurance athletes is likely similar to that which was reported in the 1960s (4); therefore, other factors beyond improved cardiac output and arteriovenous oxygen difference must be considered. Taken together with the lack of data demonstrating higher lactate thresholds in elite runners compared with the 1960s, it is most plausible that Kipchoge and Kosgei achieved greater improvements in running economy (RE). Although the authors provide a biomechanical perspective for differences in RE, I believe the potential training-related neuromuscular adaptations (e.g., force, velocity, and power) and the subsequent effect on RE have been underappreciated in this discussion.For example, Kipchoge regularly performs tempo runs consisting of interspersed high-speed sprinting and jogging (3). Explosive exercise training of this nature has been shown to improve neuromuscular characteristics and RE (1, 2) in absence of changes in maximal oxygen capacity (1). This may be due to increased muscle stiffness or motor unit coordination and/or recruitment resulting in 1) greater storage and utilization of elastic energy, 2) reduced ground contact time, and 3) reduced energy expenditure (1, 2). Collectively, these neuromuscular adaptations would allow endurance runners to run at a greater relative peak power output and/or reduce rate of muscle fatigue (1, 2, 5). Thus, it is pertinent that differences in neuromuscular attributes are considered in this discussion.REFERENCES1. Barnes KR, Kilding AE. Strategies to improve running economy. Sports Med 45: 37–56, 2015. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0246-y. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Denadai BS, de Aguiar RA, de Lima LCR, Greco CC, Caputo F. Explosive training and heavy weight training are effective for improving running economy in endurance athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 47: 545–554, 2017. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0604-z. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Pollock ML. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Part I: Cardiorespiratory aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 301: 310–322, 1977. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1977.tb38209.x. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar5. Weston AR, Mbambo Z, Myburgh KH. Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: 1130–1134, 2000. doi:10.1097/00005768-200006000-00015. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Barnes KR, Kilding AE. Strategies to improve running economy. Sports Med 45: 37–56, 2015. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0246-y. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Denadai BS, de Aguiar RA, de Lima LCR, Greco CC, Caputo F. Explosive training and heavy weight training are effective for improving running economy in endurance athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 47: 545–554, 2017. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0604-z. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Pollock ML. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Part I: Cardiorespiratory aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 301: 310–322, 1977. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1977.tb38209.x. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar5. Weston AR, Mbambo Z, Myburgh KH. Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: 1130–1134, 2000. doi:10.1097/00005768-200006000-00015. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarTIME-DEPENDENT PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES—THE MISSING PIECE OF THE MARATHON PUZZLE?Ušaj Anton1 and Debevec Tadej12.Author Affiliations1Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.2Department of Automation, Biocybernetics, and Robotics, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.to the editor: While the Viewpoint by Joyner et al. (3) superbly summarizes key factors underlying marathon running physiology and potential reasons for recent records surge, the inherently dynamic physiological nature of marathon running might have been understated. To comprehensively interpret marathon performance, one also needs to consider the time-dependent physiological alterations during both the actual marathon run and the preceding training. In particular, the average elite marathon running velocities can be explained by regression calculations using “static” values of maximal oxygen uptake, lactate threshold (LT) and running economy (RE) (2). However, given the dynamic nature of long-distance running, the contribution of these determinants to subsequent physiological responses and actual running performance significantly varies and cannot be precisely predicted by static values modeling. The variation can relate to both the relative contribution/importance of each factor and the duration-related dynamic differences. Indeed, LT can be altered due to potential glycogen-depletion-related reduction in lactate production while RE is known to decrease as a function of running duration (4). Training also represents a complex dynamical system comprised of numerous fluctuating determinants (i.e., intensity/duration/frequency, hypoxic/heat training, tapering) further complicated by the distinct individual (5) and daily (1) variability in training-induced responses. It, thus, seems crucial to constantly monitor the corresponding training-related physiological fluctuations. Given our currently scarce understanding, further exploration of time-dependent dynamics of physiological determinants during both the marathon running and training seems warranted. It will provide important insight into the often omitted “dynamic” aspect of the marathon performance puzzle and, ultimately, limits of marathon running.REFERENCES1. Cappaert TA. Time of day effect on athletic performance: an update. J Strength Cond Res 13: 412–421, 1999. doi:10.1519/00124278-199911000-00019.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar2. Joyner MJ. Modeling: optimal marathon performance on the basis of physiological factors. J Appl Physiol (1985) 70: 683–687, 1991. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.70.2.683. Link | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Lazzer S, Salvadego D, Rejc E, Buglione A, Antonutto G, di Prampero PE. The energetics of ultra-endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 1709–1715, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00421-011-2120-z. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Ross R, Goodpaster BH, Koch LG, Sarzynski MA, Kohrt WM, Johannsen NM, Skinner JS, Castro A, Irving BA, Noland RC, Sparks LM, Spielmann G, Day AG, Pitsch W, Hopkins WG, Bouchard C. Precision exercise medicine: understanding exercise response variability. Br J Sports Med 53: 1141–1153, 2019. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100328. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Cappaert TA. Time of day effect on athletic performance: an update. J Strength Cond Res 13: 412–421, 1999. doi:10.1519/00124278-199911000-00019.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar2. Joyner MJ. Modeling: optimal marathon performance on the basis of physiological factors. J Appl Physiol (1985) 70: 683–687, 1991. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.70.2.683. Link | ISI | Google Scholar3. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar4. Lazzer S, Salvadego D, Rejc E, Buglione A, Antonutto G, di Prampero PE. The energetics of ultra-endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 1709–1715, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00421-011-2120-z. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Ross R, Goodpaster BH, Koch LG, Sarzynski MA, Kohrt WM, Johannsen NM, Skinner JS, Castro A, Irving BA, Noland RC, Sparks LM, Spielmann G, Day AG, Pitsch W, Hopkins WG, Bouchard C. Precision exercise medicine: understanding exercise response variability. Br J Sports Med 53: 1141–1153, 2019. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100328. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarFAST MARATHON PHYSIOLOGY: THE ROLE OF CARDIAC TROPONINSJosé Manuel González-Rayas,1 Ana Lilia Rayas-Gómez,2 and José Manuel González-Yáñez2.Author Affiliations1School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Monterrey, México.2Hospital San José de Querétaro, Querétaro, México.to the editor: Marathons are a showcase of exquisite physical prowess as well as a remarkable opportunity for physiological discovery. Joyner et al. (1) in their Viewpoint “Physiology and fast marathons” analyze the factors that have led to the recent improvements in the marathon and 1,500-m run world records. They conclude that reductions in time come from the interplay between biological ability, intensive training programs, and modern techniques such as drafting and pacing. Moreover, better shoes, optimized tracks, and carbohydrate feeding could have also played a role by increasing running efficiency. Parallel to these advances, there is a strong body of evidence suggesting that cardiac troponin (cTn) levels rise as a consequence of running a marathon, specially in young male runners (2, 3).Troponin, a heterotrimeric protein complex that regulates muscle contraction, is a valuable biomarker in cardiology, used to define acute myocardial infarction or AMI (4). However, the prognostic significance of cTn elevation in the setting of a marathon is controversial (5). From a physiological viewpoint and returning to the topic of marathons, it would be interesting to evaluate if the magnitude of troponin rise is altered with the presence or absence of the novel running techniques (i.e., drifting, pacing, specialized shoes, improved tracks, and carbohydrate feeding). This is a unique opportunity to study the release of cTn triggered by exercise and could inform whether the release of troponins is a modifiable phenomenon. Thus marathons are more than ever a valuable method for the advancement of cardiovascular research and could potentially provide the much-needed answers for the clinical dilemma around cardiac troponins and endurance running.REFERENCES1. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar2. Kong Z, Nie J, Lin H, George K, Zhao G, Zhang H, Tong TK, Shi Q. Sex differences in release of cardiac troponin T after endurance exercise. Biomarkers 22: 345–350, 2017. doi:10.1080/1354750X.2016.1265007. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Tian Y, Nie J, Huang C, George KP. The kinetics of highly sensitive cardiac troponin T release after prolonged treadmill exercise in adolescent and adult athletes. J Appl Physiol (1985) 113: 418–425, 2012. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00247.2012. Link | ISI | Google Scholar4. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, Chaitman BR, Bax JJ, Morrow DA, White HD; Executive Group on Behalf of the Joint European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA)/World Heart Foundation (WHF) Task Force for the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). Eur Heart J 40: 237–269, 2019. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy462. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Vilela EM, Bastos JCC, Rodrigues RP, Nunes JPL. High-sensitivity troponin after running–a systematic review. Neth J Med 72: 5–9, 2014. PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar2. Kong Z, Nie J, Lin H, George K, Zhao G, Zhang H, Tong TK, Shi Q. Sex differences in release of cardiac troponin T after endurance exercise. Biomarkers 22: 345–350, 2017. doi:10.1080/1354750X.2016.1265007. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar3. Tian Y, Nie J, Huang C, George KP. The kinetics of highly sensitive cardiac troponin T release after prolonged treadmill exercise in adolescent and adult athletes. J Appl Physiol (1985) 113: 418–425, 2012. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00247.2012. Link | ISI | Google Scholar4. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, Chaitman BR, Bax JJ, Morrow DA, White HD; Executive Group on Behalf of the Joint European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA)/World Heart Foundation (WHF) Task Force for the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). Eur Heart J 40: 237–269, 2019. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy462. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Vilela EM, Bastos JCC, Rodrigues RP, Nunes JPL. High-sensitivity troponin after running–a systematic review. Neth J Med 72: 5–9, 2014. PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarPREDICTING FAST MARATHON PERFORMANCES WITH ADVANCING AGERomuald Lepers,1 Paul Stapley,2 and Julien Louis3.Author Affiliations1INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, UFR des Sciences du Sport, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.2Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, School of Medicine, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia.3Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.to the editor: Over the last three decades, the improvement in the marathon world record (WR) has been ~4–5% for elite runners (1). During the same time period, marathon performances of the best master runners have improved at a much greater rate, especially for the older age groups (> 60 yr old) (2, 3). When changes in marathon world record performances are considered with advancing age, the decline in performance is ~10% per decade. For example, the marathon WR for a 60-yr-old male is 02:36:30, which represents a running velocity 22% slower than that of the world’s fastest time, set by Eliud Kipchoge (age 34 yr old). However, this trend of age-related decline in marathon performance is based on WRs that belong to different runners and thus induces bias in the analysis. Previous studies showed that the age-related decline could be limited to 5–7% per decade at least until 60 yr of age for the same well-trained individual (4). Imagine therefore that Kipchoge remains competitive until 60 yr old. If so, we could predict a 6% decline in velocity per decade which would result in a marathon time of 02:18:15 at 60 yr old i.e., 18 min faster than the current WR for a 60-yr-old. This simulation suggests that marathon WRs in master categories will probably continue to improve in the future if ex-elite runners preserve their motivation to compete as they age. These super master runners will therefore offer valuable information about how lifelong endurance exercise can counteract the age-related decline in integrative physiological function (3, 5).REFERENCES1. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar2. Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age (Dordr) 34: 773–781, 2012. doi:10.1007/s11357-011-9271-z. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar3. Lepers R, Stapley PJ. Master athletes are extending the limits of human endurance. Front Physiol 12: 613, 2016. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00613. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar4. Lepers R, Bontemps B, Louis J. Physiological profile of a 59-year-old male world record holder marathoner. Med Sci Sports Exerc 52: 623–626, 2020. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000002181. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Valenzuela PL, Maffiuletti NA, Joyner MJ, Lucia A, Lepers R. Lifelong endurance exercise as a countermeasure against age-related V̇o2max decline: physiological overview and insights from masters athletes. Sports Med 50: 703–716, 2020. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01252-0. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarREFERENCES1. Joyner MJ, Hunter SK, Lucia A, Jones AM. Physiology and fast marathons. J Appl Physiol (1985). doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019. Link | Google Scholar2. Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age (Dordr) 34: 773–781, 2012. doi:10.1007/s11357-011-9271-z. Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar3. Lepers R, Stapley PJ. Master athletes are extending the limits of human endurance. Front Physiol 12: 613, 2016. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00613. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar4. Lepers R, Bontemps B, Louis J. Physiological profile of a 59-year-old male world record holder marathoner. Med Sci Sports Exerc 52: 623–626, 2020. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000002181. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar5. Valenzuela PL, Maffiuletti NA, Joyner MJ, Lucia A, Lepers R. Lifelong endurance exercise as a countermeasure against age-related V̇o2max decline: physiological overview and insights from masters athletes. Sports Med 50: 703–716, 2020. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01252-0. Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google ScholarPHYSIOLOGY AND FAST MARATHONS—FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS THROUGH BRAIN STIMULATION?Felix Proessl.Author AffiliationsNeuromuscular Research Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.to the editor: In their Viewpoint, Joyner et al. (1) describe the physiological underpinnings of maximal oxygen consumption (V̇o2max), lactate threshol
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