Three Responses to ‘Can There Be Genocide Without the Intent to Commit Genocide?’
2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 10; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/14623520701850955
ISSN1469-9494
Tópico(s)Historical and Contemporary Political Dynamics
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Tony Barta, “Decent disposal: Australian historians and the recovery of genocide,” in: Dan Stone, ed., The Historiography of Genocide (Palgrave, forthcoming). 2. US Federal Rules of Evidence, “Relevant evidence” (Rule 401), December 2006, available at http://judiciary.house.gov/media/pdfs/printers/109th/31310.pdf. 3. False statistical inference about the number of times two cot deaths might occur in one family was a critical issue in sending the mother to die in jail for murdering—with intent—her own babies. ABC Radio National Law Report, 28 August 2007. 4. Günter Lewy, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (New York: Oxford, 2000), pp 223–224. 5. Leo Kuper, Genocide (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), p 24. 6. Both documents are reprinted, with the Convention, in Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, The History and Sociology of Genocide (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), pp 50–53. 7. The word “Holocaust” was not widely used in English in 1978; it entered the German language in 1979 when the television drama was screened in West Germany. Anton Kaes, From Hitler to Heimat: The Return of History as Film (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1989), p 30. 8. Chalk and Jonassohn, pp 15–16. Two years further on, Fein produced a revised definition: “Genocide is sustained purposeful action by a perpetrator to physically destroy a collectivity directly or indirectly, through the interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members, sustained regardless of the surrender or lack of threat offered by the victim.” Her remarks on the question of intent largely follow Chalk. Helen Fein, “Defining genocide as a sociological concept,” in: Genocide: A Sociological Perspective, pp 8–31 (London: Sage, 1990). Reprinted in Simone Gigliotti and Berel Lang, The Holocaust: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp 398–419. 9. Kuper, p 40. 10. Chalk and Jonassohn, p 20. 11. Tony Barta, “Relations of genocide: land and lives in the colonization of Australia,” in: Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds, Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, pp 237–251 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1987). The historical relationship of Marxism and genocide is addressed from another perspective in Tony Barta, “On pain of extinction: laws of nature and history in Darwin, Marx and Arendt,” in: Richard H. King and Dan Stone, eds, Imperialism, Slavery, Race and Genocide: The Legacy of Hannah Arendt (New York: Berghahn, 2007). 12. A. Dirk Moses, “An antipodean genocide? The origins of the genocidal moment in the colonization of Australia,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 2, No 1, 2000, pp 89–106. See also the introduction in Moses, Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York: Berghahn, 2004). 13. “Relations of genocide,” p 248. The ideological case has since been thickened up by Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2003). 14. “Relations of genocide,” pp 243, 250. 15. Lemkin's chapter on Tasmania appeared for the first time in Patterns of Prejudice, Vol 39, No 2, 2005, pp 171–196, “Colonial genocide” issue, A. Dirk Moses and Dan Stone, eds. See also Ann Curthoys, “Raphael Lemkin's ‘Tasmania’: an introduction,” pp 162–169. Ann Curthoys and John Docker, “Genocide: definitions, questions, settler colonies,” introduction to special section “‘Genocide’? Australian Aboriginal history in international perspective,” Aboriginal History, Vol 25, 2001, and Michael A. McDonnell and A. Dirk Moses, “Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 7, No 4, 2005, pp 501–529. 16. Patrick Wolfe, “Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 8, No 4, 2006, pp 387–409, for example, is much more searchingly engaged with the real conceptual and historical issues. 1. Lewy (1978 Lewy, G. 1978. America in Vietnam, New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar], 2000 Lewy, G. 2000. The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies, New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar], 2005 Lewy, G. 2005. The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. [Google Scholar]). 2. Quigley (2006 Quigley, J. B. 2006. The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis, Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate. International and Comparative Criminal Justice Series: International and Comparative Criminal Justice [Google Scholar], pp 111–120). 3. Michaels (1985 Michaels, A. C. 1985. Defining unintended murder. Columbia Law Review, 85(4): 786–811. [Google Scholar], p 787). Pertaining to German law, Lin (2003 Lin, Y-T. 2003. Wie ist Verantwortungsethik möglich? Zur transzendentalpragmatischen Begründung der Diskursethik im technologischen Zeitalter. Disseration, Freie Universität Berlin [Google Scholar], p 75). Ryu and Silving (1957 Ryu, P. K. and Silving, H. 1957. Error juris: a comparative study. The University of Chicago Law Review, 24(3): 421–471. [Google Scholar], p 440). Krug (1854 Krug, A. O. 1854. U¨ber dolus und culpa und insbesondere über den Begriff der unbestimmten Absicht, Leipzig: Tauchnitz. [Google Scholar], pp 8–23). For the changes in German law, enactment of § 211of the German Penal Code through the law of September 4, 1941 (RGBl. I S. 549). 4. Black and Nolan (1990 Black, H. C. and Nolan, J. R. 1990. Black's Law Dictionary: Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul, MN: West. [Google Scholar], p 810). 5. State v. Gantt, 26 N.C.App.554, 217 S.E.2nd 3,5. 6. Tournaye (2003 Tournaye, C. 2003. Genocidal intent before the ICTY. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 52(2): 447–462. [Google Scholar], p 462). 7. Azuelos-Atias (2007) Azuelos-Atias, S. 2007. A Pragmatic Analysis of Legal Proofs of Criminal Intent: Discourse Approaches to Politics, Society and Culture, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. [Google Scholar]; Quigley (2006) Quigley, J. B. 2006. The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis, Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate. International and Comparative Criminal Justice Series: International and Comparative Criminal Justice [Google Scholar]; Henham and Behrens (2007) Henham, R. J. and Behrens, P. 2007. The Criminal Law of Genocide: International, Comparative, and Contextual Aspects, Burlington, VT: Ashgate. International and Comparative Criminal Justice [Google Scholar]; Bantekas (1999) Bantekas, I. 1999. The contemporary law of superior responsibility. The American Journal of International Law, 93(3): 573–595. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. 8. Bantekas (1999 Bantekas, I. 1999. The contemporary law of superior responsibility. The American Journal of International Law, 93(3): 573–595. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], pp 573–575); Van Schaack (1997 Van Schaack, B. 1997. The crime of political genocide: repairing the genocide Convention's blind spot. The Yale Law Journal, 106(7): 2259–2291. [Google Scholar], pp 2261–2264). 9. Recent Important Decisions (1921 Recent Important Decisions. 1921. Criminal law: assault with intent to kill: intent. Michigan Law Review, 20(2): 234–235. [Google Scholar], pp 234–235). 10. Notes (1913) Notes. 1913. Criminal law: specific intent. assault with intent to kill. Harvard Law Review, 26(5): 452–453. [Google Scholar]. 11. 64 Cal. App., 220 P. 315. 12. Buzash (1989 Buzash, G. E. 1989. The “rough sex” defense. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 80(2): 557–584. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p 569); Finkel and Duff (1991) Finkel, N. J. and Duff, K. B. 1991. Felony-murder and community sentiment: testing the Supreme Court's assertions. Law and Human Behavior, 15(4): 405–429. [Google Scholar]. 13. Buszash (1989, p 572). 14. Norborg (2000) Norborg, C. 2000. Conditional intent to kill is enough for federal carjacking conviction. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 90(3): 985–1012. [Google Scholar]. 15. Tushnet and Tribe (1999 Tushnet, M. and Tribe, L. H. 1999. The Supreme Court, 1998 term. Harvard Law Review, 113(No 1): pp 26–198, 200–441. [Google Scholar], p 380). 16. Grishkin (1997 Grishkin, J. 1997. Knowingly exposing another to HIV: Smallwood v. State, 680 A.2d 512 (Md. 1996). The Yale Law Journal, 106(5): 1617–1622. [Google Scholar], p 1617). 17. 680 A. 2d 513 (MD 1996). 18. Griskin (1997, p 1622). 19. Uglow (1983) Uglow, S. 1983. Implied malice and the Homicide Act of 1957. The Modern Law Review, 46(2): 164–177. [Google Scholar]. 20. Greenawalt (1999 Greenawalt, A. K.A. 1999. Rethinking genocidal intent: the case for a knowledge-based interpretation. Columbia Law Review, 99(8): 2259–2294. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p 2265). 21. Ibid, p 2259. 22. Allain and Jones (1997) Allain, J. and Jones, J. R. W. D. 1997. A patchwork of norms: a commentary on the 1996 Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind. European Journal of International Law, 8(1): 100–117. [Google Scholar]. 23. Shaw (2007 Shaw, M. 2007. What Is Genocide?, Cambridge: Polity Press. [Google Scholar], p 4). 24. Segesser and Gessler (2005) Segesser, D. and Gessler, M. 2005. Raphael Lemkin and the international debate on the punishment of war crimes (1919–1948). Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 453–468. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Elder (2005) Elder, T. 2005. What you see before your eyes: documenting Raphael Lemkin's life by exploring his archival papers, 1900–1959. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 469–499. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; McDonnell and Moses (2005) McDonnell, M. and Moses, A. D. 2005. Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 501–529. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Schaller (2005) Schaller, D. 2005. Raphae Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 531–538. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Stone (2005) Stone, D. 2005. Raphael Lemkin and the Holocaust. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 539–550. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Weiss-Wendt (2005) Weiss-Wendt, A. 2005. Hostage of politics: Raphael Lemkin on “Soviet Genocide,”. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 551–559. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]. 25. Elder (2005) Elder, T. 2005. What you see before your eyes: documenting Raphael Lemkin's life by exploring his archival papers, 1900–1959. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 469–499. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; McDonnell and Moses (2005) McDonnell, M. and Moses, A. D. 2005. Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 501–529. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; Schaller (2005) Schaller, D. 2005. Raphae Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 531–538. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]. 26. Lemkin (1944 Lemkin, R. 1944. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law. [Google Scholar], pp xi–xii). 27. Legal and Administrative Decisions, United States Weekly Bulletin, December 31, 1946, quoted in Van Schaack (1997 Van Schaack, B. 1997. The crime of political genocide: repairing the genocide Convention's blind spot. The Yale Law Journal, 106(7): 2259–2291. [Google Scholar], p 2263). 28. United Nations General Assembly (1948) United Nations General Assembly. 1948. Prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide. Available at http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html (accessed July 12, 2007) [Google Scholar]. 29 Weiss-Wendt (2005) Weiss-Wendt, A. 2005. Hostage of politics: Raphael Lemkin on “Soviet Genocide,”. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4): 551–559. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]. 30. Black and Nolan (1990 Black, H. C. and Nolan, J. R. 1990. Black's Law Dictionary: Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul, MN: West. [Google Scholar], p 1190). 31. Moses (2007) Moses, A. D. 2007. “Conceptual blockages and definitional dilemmas in the “racial century”: genocides of indigenous peoples and the Holocaust”. In Colonialism and Genocide, Edited by: Dirk Moses, A. and Dan, Stone. Abingdon: Routledge. [Google Scholar]. 32. Ibid, p 159. 33. Ibid, pp 162–163. 34. Ibid, p 164. 35. Ibid, p 166. 36. Ibid, p 171. 37. Deleuze (1988 Deleuze, G. 1988. Le Pli: Leibniz et le Baroque: Collection “Critique”, Paris: Editions de Minuit. [Google Scholar], pp 103–105). 38. Ibid, pp 103–112. Deleuze (1990 Deleuze, G. 1990. The Logic of Sense: European Perspectives, New York: Columbia University Press. [Google Scholar], p 22); Finzsch (2007) Finzsch, N. 2007. “[…] extirpate or remove that Vermine”: genocide, biological warfare, and settler imperialism in the 18th and early 19th century. unpublished manuscript [Google Scholar]. 39. Deleuze (1988 Deleuze, G. 1988. Le Pli: Leibniz et le Baroque: Collection “Critique”, Paris: Editions de Minuit. [Google Scholar], pp 22–25). 1. See, for example, Patrick M. Scanlon, “Song from myself: an anatomy of self-plagiarism,” Plagiary, Vol 2, No 1, 2007; and Tracey Bretag and Saadia Carapiet, “A preliminary study to identify the extent of self-plagiarism in Australian academic research,” Plagiary, Vol 2, No 5. Both articles are available online at http://www.plagiary.org. 2. Guenter Lewy, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); Guenter Lewy, The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2005). 3. “Statement by 126 Holocaust scholars, holders of academic chairs, and directors of Holocaust research and studies centres,” originally published in the New York Times on June 9, 2000, is available online at http://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.21/current_category.3/affirmation_detail.html. The Anti-Defamation League decision was widely reported in the press; see, for instance, “Jewish group in U.S. reverses stand—calls Armenian massacre ‘genocide,’” International Herald Tribune, August 21, 2007. 4. Alexander K. A. Greenawalt, “Rethinking genocidal intent: the case for a knowledge-based interpretation,” Columbia Law Review, Vol 99, No 8, pp 2264–2265. 5. Katherine G. Southwick, “Srebrenica as genocide? The Krstic decision and the language of the unspeakable,” Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal, Vol 8, 2005, p 211; see also, William A. Schabas, “Was genocide committed in Bosnia and Herzegovina? First judgments of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,” Fordham International Law Journal, Vol 25, 2001, pp 23–53. 6. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), p 233; Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), p 223. 7. Mark Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), Vol II, Part One; “Kiernan, blood and soil,” Chapters 6 and 8. As an example of work that long ago undermined the exact points that Lewy tries to make in the historical portion of the present essay, I invite readers to compare the actual content of David E. Stannard, “Uniqueness as denial: the politics of genocide research,” in: Alan S. Rosenbaum, ed., Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide, pp 163–208 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), with Lewy's representations. 8. A. Dirk Moses, “Genocide and settler society in Australian history” and Jürgen Zimmerer, “Colonialism and the Holocaust: towards an archeology of genocide,” in: A. Dirk Moses, ed., Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History, pp 3–48, 49–76 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004); Michael A. McDonnell and A. Dirk Moses, “Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 7, No 4, 2005, pp 501–29; Patrick Wolf, “Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 8, No 4, 2006, pp 387–409. 9. Guenter Lewy, “Were American Indians the victims of genocide?” Commentary, September 2004, p 62. 10. Here, and in what follows, I present a greatly abbreviated version of an argument contained within an essay that I am currently preparing for publication. 11. In this regard, it is worth recalling that the United States took 40 years to ratify the Convention, and then did so with such restrictive and self-serving stipulations that Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom filed formal objections to the US action. For this and more, see Lawrence J. LeBlanc, The United States and the Genocide Convention (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991). 12. William A. Schabas, “Problems of international codification—were the atrocities in Cambodia and Kosovo genocide?” New England Law Review, Vol 35, No 2, 2001, pp 301–302; Southwick, “Srebrenica as genocide?” p 227. 13. See, for example, Schabas, “Problems of international codification,” pp 289–293. A prominent exception is Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), pp 460–463. 14. See brief discussion in Greenawalt, “Rethinking genocidal intent,” p 2285, citing Richard Arens, Genocide in Paraguay (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1976). 15. Jason Abrams, “The atrocities in Cambodia and Kosovo: observations on the codification of genocide,” New England Law Review, Vol 35, No 2, 2001, p 309. 16. Guenter Lewy, “Revisiting the Armenian genocide,” Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2005, available at http://www.meforum.org/article/748.
Referência(s)