Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Mediterraneanization

2003; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 18; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/0951896032000230471

1743-940X

Ian Morris,

African history and culture analysis

Abstract Since the 1980s historians and archaeologists have shifted from models emphasizing the stability of bounded cultures to ones emphasizing fluidity and connectedness. It is argued here that this is a response to globalization. Criticizing current connectedness models for their unfocused questions and methods, the argument emphasizes processes of Mediterraneanization over timeless Mediterraneanism, the need for more precise analytical categories, and recognition that increasing connectedness created both winners and losers. It is illustrated with a study of western Sicily, where Mediterraneanization benefited and harmed different groups between 800 and 300 BCE. Notes 1. Keith Hopkins, 'Introduction', in Peter Garnsey, Keith Hopkins, and C.R. Whittaker (eds.), Trade in the Ancient Economy (Cambridge, 1983), p.xi. 2. Moses I. Finley, The Ancient Economy (Berkeley, 1973). 3. Hopkins, 'Introduction', p.xiv. 4. Particularly Hopkins, 'Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire', Journal of Roman Studies, 70 (1980), pp.101–25; 'Models, Ships, and Staples', in Peter Garnsey and C.R. Whittaker (eds.), Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity (Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society supp.8, 1983), pp.84–109; and 'Rome, Taxes, Rents, and Trade', Kodai, 6/7 (1995/96), pp.41–75, reprinted in Walter Scheidel and Sitta von Reden (eds.), The Ancient Economy (Edinburgh, 2002), pp.190–230. 5. Martin Bernal, Black Athena I: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece, 1785–1985 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1987). 6. Sarah P. Morris, Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art (Princeton, NJ, 1992). 7. Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study in Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000). 8. Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study in Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p.2. 9. Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study in Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), p.9. 10. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn. (Chicago, 1970). 11. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn. (Chicago, 1970), p.209. 12. Brent D. Shaw, 'Challenging Braudel: A New Vision of the Mediterranean', Journal of Roman Archaeology, 14 (2001), p.453. 13. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Siân Reynolds, Vol.1 (New York, 1972 [1949]), p.14. 14. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.39. 15. Baltasar Porcel, Mediterráneo: Tumultos de Oleaie (Barcelona, 1996); Jean Carpentier and François Lebrun, Histoire de la Méditerranée (Paris, 1998). 16. P. Chaunu and H. Chaunu, Séville et l'Atlantique, 1504–1650, 12 vols. (Paris, 1955–59); K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge, 1986), and Asia before Europe (Cambridge, 1990). 17. Walter Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution, trans. Margaret Pinder and Walter Burkert (Cambridge, 1992 [1984]); Bernal, Black Athena; Christopher Faraone, Talismans and Trojan Horses (Stanford, 1991); Morris, Daidalos; Martin L. West, The East Face of Helicon (Oxford, 1997). 18. My source for library purchases, the Association of Research Libraries Statistics annual reports, begins only in 1974. 19. Stanford's libraries are consistently in the top ten US research libraries for total purchases but tend to be stronger in the natural sciences than in the humanities and the social sciences. They also went through budget cuts in the early 1990s, with the number of purchases falling from an average slightly over 200,000 in 1985–89 to just over 150,000 in 1990–94, before recovering to over 200,000 in the later 1990s (the later 1980s score is distorted by an intake of 320,601 volumes in 1988–89; the median for each five-year period may be more useful, falling from 167,055 in 1985–89 to 153,562 in 1990–94 and rising to 212,558 in 1995–99). 20. Braudel, The Mediterranean, pp.17–18. 21. Braudel, The Mediterranean, , pp.394–6. 22. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.12–18. 23. Braudel, The Mediterranean, pp.21–2. 24. I owe this term to Marc van de Mieroop. 25. For the text see Paul Balta, Méditerranée: Defies et enjeux (Paris, 2000), pp.163–75. 26. E.g., Richard Gillespie and George Joffé, 'Editor's Note', Mediterranean Politics, 1 (1996), pp.v–vi. 27. S.C. Calleya, Navigating Regional Dynamics in the Post-Cold War World: Patterns of Relations in the Mediterranean Area (Dartmouth, UK, 1997), pp.89–140. 28. A. Bernard Knapp, 'Editorial Statement', Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology, 1 (1988), pp.3–10. 29. Paul Sant Cassia, 'Editorial Foreword', Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 1 (1991), pp.v–vi. 30. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.45. 31. See, e.g., Dimitris Xenakis and Dimitris Chrsyochoou, The Emerging Euro-Mediterranean System (Manchester, 2001), pp.81–2. 32. Eugenio Mazzarella, 'L'universo linguistico', Civiltà del Mediterraneo, 1 (1992), pp.5–6. 33. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.172. 34. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.143. 35. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.400. 36. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.91–122. 37. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.342–4. 38. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.485–523. 39. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.523. 40. The globalization literature is vast and polemical. I have found the following works particularly interesting: David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford, 1989); Martin Albrow, The Global Age: State and Society beyond Modernity (Stanford, CA, 1996); Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN, 1996); Arjun Appadurai (ed.), Globalization (Durham, NC, 2001); Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1996–98); Douglas Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, NJ, 1997); Debraj Ray, Development Economics (Princeton, NJ, 1998); Anthony Giddens, Runaway World: How Globalism is Changing Our Lives (London, 1999); Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford, 1999); Daniel Yergin, Joseph Stanislaw, and Daniel Tergin, The Commanding Heights: The Battle between Government and the Marketplace that is Remaking the Modern World (New York, 1999); Hernando de Soto, The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (London, 2000); Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization (New York, 2000); Robert Gilpin, The Challenge of Global Capitalism: The World Economy in the 21st Century (Princeton, NJ, 2000); George Soros, The Crisis of Global Capitalism: Open Society Endangered (New York, 1998); Mancur Olson, Power and Prosperity (New York, 2000); Richard Kugler and Ellen Frost, The Global Century: Globalization and National Security, 2 vols. (Washington, DC, 2001); Niall Ferguson, The Cash Nexus: Money and Power in the Modern World 1700–2000 (New York, 2001); Gilbert Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (New York, 2001); Michael Herzfeld, Anthropology: Theoretical Practice in Culture and Society (Oxford, 2001); Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents (New York, 2002), and The Roaring Nineties (New York, 2003). 41. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, pp.112–13. 42. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity. 43. Appadurai, Modernity at Large and Globalization; Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson (eds.), Culture, Power, Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology (Durham, NC, 1997); Sherry Ortner (ed.), The Fate of 'Cultures' (Berkeley, CA, 1999); Herzfeld, Anthropology. 44. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, 'The Communist Manifesto', in David McCullagh (ed.), Karl Marx: Selected Writings (Oxford, 1977), pp.221–47. 45. Ronald Coase, 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica, 4 (1937), pp.386–405; Douglass North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge, 1990). 46. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity;Edward Soja, Postmetropolis: Studies of Cities and Regions (Oxford, 2000); Emma Blake, 'Spatiality Past and Present', Journal of Social Archaeology, 2 (2002), pp.139–58. 47. E.g., Ian Hodder, Archaeology and Globalism (Bloomington, IN, 2000); Christopher Gosden, Archaeology and Anthropology (London, 2000); Appadurai, Globalization; Arjun Appadurai, Ashish Chadha, Ian Hodder, Trinity Jackman, and Chris Witmore, 'The Globalization of Archaeology and Heritage', Journal of Social Archaeology, 1 (2001), pp.35–49. 48. Jan Paul Crielaard, 'Surfing on the Mediterranean Web: Cypriot Long-Distance Communications during the Eleventh and Tenth Centuries B.C.', in Vassos Karageorghis and Nikolaos Stampolidis (eds.), Eastern Mediterranean: Cyprus-Dodecanese-Crete, 16th–6th Cent. B.C. (Athens, 1998), pp.187–206. 49. Mary Lefkowitz, Not Out of Africa (New York, 1996); Victor Hanson and John Heath, Who Killed Homer? (New York, 1998); Page duBois, Trojan Horses: Saving the Classics from Conservatives (New York, 2001). 50. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things, trans. Alan Sheridan (London, 1970 [1966]), p.xi. 51. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (New York, 1944); Karl Polanyi, Conrad Arensberg, and Harry Pearson (eds.), Trade and Markets in the Early Empires (Glencoe, IL, 1957). 52. Moses I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (London, 1980), pp.58–64. 53. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.15. 54. Faraone, Talismans and Trojan Horses; Morris, Daidalos; West, East Face of Helicon. 55. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.5. 56. Shaw, 'Challenging Braudel', p.427. 57. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, p.xix. 58. See the studies listed in n.40 above and Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880–1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983); Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire 1875–1914 (New York, 1987). 59. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.151, 152 and 172. 60. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, pp.153–72; cf. pp.275–6 on Early Iron Age Greece. 61. Bruce Hitchner, 'The First Globalization: The Roman Empire and Its Legacy in the 21st Century', MS. 62. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.147. 63. Ian Morris, 'Hard Surfaces', in Paul Cartledge, Ed Cohen, and Lin Foxhall (eds.), Money, Labour, and Land: Approaches to the Economics of Ancient Greece (London, 2001), pp.8–43; Ian Morris and J.G. Manning, 'Introduction', in J.G. Manning and Ian Morris (eds.), The Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models (Stanford, CA, 2004). 64. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.101. In an important earlier paper, Purcell emphasized the need for 'hypothetical quantification', but he seems to have moved away from this position. Nicholas Purcell, 'Mobility and the Polis', in Oswyn Murray and Simon Price (eds.), The Greek City (Oxford, 1990), pp.29–58. 65. B. Porten and A. Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, Vol.3, Literature, Accounts, Lists (Jerusalem, 1993), pp.82–195; A. Yardeni, 'Maritime Trade and Royal Accountancy in an Erased Customs Account from 475 B.C. on the Ahiqar Scroll from Elephantine', Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 293 (1994), pp.67–87. 66. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.149. 67. Pierre Briant and Raymond Descat, 'Un register douanier de la satrapie d'Egypte à l'époque achéménide (TAD C3, 7)', in Nicolas Grimal and Bernadette Menu (eds.), Le commerce en Egypte ancienne (Cairo, 1998), pp.66–9. 68. Morris, Daidalos; Patrice Brun, Princes et princesses de la celtique: La premier Age du Fer (850–450 avant J.C.) (Paris, 1987); Andrew Sherratt and Susan Sherratt, 'The Growth of the Mediterranean Economy in the Early First Millennium B.C.', World Archaeology, 24 (1993), pp.361–78; Kristian Kristiansen, Europe before History (Cambridge, 1998); cf. Gregory Woolf, 'World-Systems Analysis and the Roman Empire', Journal of Roman Archaeology, 3 (1990), pp.44–58. 69. Ian Morris, Archaeology as Cultural History (Oxford, 2000), pp.3–33, and 'Archaeology, Standards of Living, and Greek Economic History', in Manning and Morris (eds.), The Ancient Economy. 70. Moses I. Finley, Ancient Sicily (New York, 1968), p.3. 71. Ian Morris, Trinity Jackman, Emma Blake, and Sebastiano Tusa, 'Stanford University Excavations on the Acropolis of Monte Polizzo, Sicily, 1: Preliminary Report on the 2000 Season', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 46 (2001), pp.253–71, and 'Stanford University Excavations on the Acropolis of Monte Polizzo, Sicily, 2: Preliminary Report on the 2001 Season', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 47 (2002), pp.153–98; Ian Morris, Trinity Jackman, Emma Blake, Brien Garnand, and Sebastiano Tusa, 'Stanford University Excavations on the Acropolis of Monte Polizzo, Sicily, 3: Preliminary Report on the 2002 Season', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 48 (2003) pp.343–415. 72. Sebastiano Tusa, La Sicilia nella preistoria (Palermo, 1992), pp.547–663; Robert Leighton, Sicily before History (London, 1999), pp.187–268. 73. D. Lauro, 'Cozzo Sannita: Un insediamento indigeno e punico-ellenisticio lungo il corse del fiume San Leonardo', in Carmela Di Stefano (ed.), Archeologia e territorio (Palermo, 1997), pp.349–60; Maria Adelaide Vaggioli, 'Il territorio di Entella nell' età dell' epicrazia punica: Dati preliminary', Sicilia Archeologica, 34 (2001), pp.51–66, with references. 74. Di Stefano (ed.), Archeologia e territorio, pp.25–110; Carmela Di Stefano (ed.), Palermo punica (Palermo, 1998); Marisa Famà, Mozia – gli scavi nella 'Zona A' dell' abitato (Bari, 2002). 75. Francesca Spatafora, 'La ceramica indigena a decorazione impressa e incisa nella Sicilia centro-meridionale', Sicilia Archeologica, 29 (1996), pp.91–110; Caterina Trombi, 'La ceramica indigena dipinta della Sicilia dalla seconda metà del IX sec. a.C. al V sec. a.C.', in M. Barra Bagnasco, Ernesto De Miro, and A. Pinzone (eds.), Magna Grecia e Sicilia: Stato degli studi e prospettive di ricerca (Messina, 1999), pp.275–93. 76. Giuseppe Castellana, 'L'insediamento di Montagnoli nei pressi di Selinunte', in Sebastiano Tusa, Giuseppe Nenci, and Vincenzo Tusa (eds.), Gli elimi e l'area Elima (Palermo, 1988/89), pp.326–31; idem, 'Note sulla ceramica indigena impressa proviente da scavi nella valle del Belice e nel bacino finale del Platani', in Giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.1 (Pisa and Gibellina, 1992), pp.191–202; and idem, 'Nuovi dati sull' insediamento di Montagnoli presso Menfi', in Terze giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.1 (Pisa and Gibellina, 2000), pp.263–71. 77. Franco De Angelis, 'Estimating the Agricultural Base of Greek Sicily', Papers of the British School at Rome, 68 (2000), pp.111–48. 78. Vassallo, 'Abitati indigeni ellenizati della Sicilia centro-occidentale dalla vitalità tardo-arcaica alla crisi del V sec. a.C.', in Terze giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.2 (Pisa and Gibellina, 2000), pp.985–1008. 79. Vassallo, 'Abitati indigeni ellenizati della Sicilia centro-occidentale dalla vitalità tardo-arcaica alla crisi del V sec. a.C.', in Terze giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.2 (Pisa and Gibellina, 2000), p.994. 80. Giuseppe Nenci, 'Entella', in C. Marotta, C. Greco, Francesca Spatafora, and Stefano Vassallo (eds.), Di terra in terra: Nuove scoperto archeologiche nella Provincia di Palermo (Palermo, 1991), p.36; Riccardo Guglielmino, 'Materiali arcaici e problemi di ellenizzazione a Entella', in Seconde giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.2 (Pisa and Gibellina, 1997), pp.923–56. 81. Francesca Spatafora, 'Monte Maranfusa (scavi 1986–87)', in Tusa et al. (eds.), Gli elimi e l'area Elima, p.298. See also Francesca Spatafora (ed.), Monte Maranfusa (Palermo, 2003). 82. Jeremy Johns believes that most lowland forests were cleared by 900, and preliminary pollen results from Monte Polizzo suggest that the area was open grassland. Jeremy Johns, 'Monreale survey: L'insediamento umano nell' alto Belice dall'età paleolitica al 1250 d.C.', in Giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.1 (Pisa and Gibellina, 1992), pp.407–20; Kari Hjelle, 'Pollen Analytical Investigations in the Scandinavian-Sicilian Archaeological Project (SSAP) 1999–2000', MS. 83. Morris et al., 'Stanford University Excavations, 3', pp.280–85 and 294–97. 84. Ernesto De Miro, 'Gli "indigeni" della Sicilia centro-meridionale', Kokalos, 34–35 (1988–89), pp.24–34. 85. Leighton, Sicily before History, p.264. 86. Vincenzo Tusa, 'Il santuario arcaico di contrada Mango', in Atti del VIII. Congresso Internazionale di archeologic classica, Vol.2 (Rome, 1961), pp.31–40; Vincenzo Tusa, Raimondo Catalano, Giuseppe Maniaci, and Adriana La Porta, 'Il santuario in contrada Mango (Segesta)', in Giornate internazionali di studi sull' area Elima, Atti, Vol.2 (Pisa and Gibellina, 1992), pp.617–45. An enormous stone enclosure dates to the sixth century; only cuttings for the temple walls and architectural fragments have been found, but must date ca. 550–450 BCE. 87. A. Snodgrass, 'Interaction by Design: The Greek City-State', in Colin Renfrew and John Cherry (eds.), Peer Polity Interaction and the Development of Socio-Cultural Complexity (Cambridge, 1986), pp.47–58. 88. Vincenzo Tusa, 'Frammenti di ceramica con graffiti da Segesta', Kokalos, 21 (1970), pp.214–25; Juliette de la Genière and Vincenzo Tusa, 'Saggio a Segesta: Grotta Venella (ottobre 1978)', Sicilia Archeologica, 37 (1978), pp.11–29. 89. Vassallo, 'Abitati indigeni ellenizati'. 90. Morris et al., 'Stanford University Excavations, 3', pp.287–90. 91. Sandro Bondì, 'Carthage, Italy, and the "Vth Century Problem"', in G. Pisano (ed.), Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean (Rome, 1999), pp.39–48. 92. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.134. 93. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.286. 94. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.396. 95. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p.396.