Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Justice Tourism and Alternative Globalisation

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.2167/jost749.0

1747-7646

Freya Higgins‐Desbiolles,

Sports, Gender, and Society

Abstract Because of the negative impacts of capitalist globalisation, some commentators are anticipating an alternative form of globalisation. This paper examines the potential of alternative tourisms to be catalysts for more just and sustainable forms of globalisation. While it is argued that various forms of alternative tourism, including ecotourism, sustainability, peace through tourism, and pro-poor tourism have been co-opted by a defensive tourism industry in the face of widespread criticism and an active anti-capitalist globalisation movement, it is suggested that the niche of justice tourism provides a singular model of difference. Justice tourism is a relatively new and under-analysed phenomenon that seeks not only to reform the inequities and damages of contemporary tourism, but also to chart a path to a more just global order. An examination of justice tourism indicates that its 'products and services', its structures and its agendas are radically different from the other segments of the alternative tourism phenomenon. In particular, the formation of the Tourism Interventions Group, with its collaboration with the social justice movement meeting under the auspices of the World Social Forum, shows that justice tourism aims for a fundamental transformation of the contemporary global order. Keywords: alternative tourismglobalisationjustice tourismcorporate undermining of alternative tourism Notes 1. While a key feature of recent critical tourism literature is to condemn the negative impacts of mass tourism and laud alternative tourism, perhaps more important to recognise is the development of a corporatised tourism sector as capitalism and neoliberalism have gained ascendancy in the global arena (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2006 Higgins-Desbiolles, B. F. 2006. Another world is possible: Tourism, globalisation and the responsible alternative, Adelaide: Flinders University of South Australia. Unpublished PhD thesis [Google Scholar]). Corporatised tourism witnesses unprecedented power demonstrated by such TNCs as Thomas Cook Travel Group and TUI A.G. which have achieved 'vertical integration' through ownership of diverse sectors of the tourism and travel industry which enables them to manipulate tourism to maximise their profits and provide exclusive holidays for elite tourist clients frequently to the detriment of local communities. The logic of corporatised tourism is based on exploitation and commodification of all factors of production including people, cultures and environments. This exploitation results in opposition to tourism which parallels the development of opposition to capitalist globalisation. In his discussion of tourism ethics, Fennell (2003: 102) argues this 'psychology of profit … can diminish human welfare to the most sub-standard levels imaginable'. 2. In 1999, globalisation appeared under threat for at least two reasons. Firstly, the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, a major initiative of capitalist globalisation, was successfully derailed by a campaign led by the NGO Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions to Assist the Citizen (ATTAC) (see Moberg, 2001 Moberg, D. 2001. On the Attack: A New European Alternative to Globalisation http://www.inthesetimes.com/site/main/article/1516/ Accessed 03.03.03 [Google Scholar]). Additionally, a tradition of the opponents of capitalist globalisation gathering at major meetings of the institutions of global capital began in November 1999 in Seattle where the WTO met to discuss trade liberalisation. Since that time, such meetings rarely occur without tens of thousands of people from a variety of movements around the globe gathering to voice their opposition to capitalist globalisation. 3. Led by Brazilian President Luiz Inacio da Silva, Brazil, France, Spain, Germany and Algeria advocated such a levy, with the proceeds to be directed to poverty alleviation (Green Travel, 2005 Green Travel. 2005. Chile announces flight tax to aid developing nations Email communication (3 Sep) [Google Scholar]). The proposition was supported by the Gleneagles meeting of the G8 countries in 2005. France and Germany have since planned a pilot for the idea (Smith, 2005 Smith, D. 2005. "Air ticket tax to help cover African debt". In Sunday Times http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,2087-1650902,00.html Accessed 28.08.05, (12 Jun) [Google Scholar]). It is suggested that such a levy could raise as much as $10 billion through a mere $1 levy per ticket (Smith, 2005 Smith, D. 2005. "Air ticket tax to help cover African debt". In Sunday Times http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,2087-1650902,00.html Accessed 28.08.05, (12 Jun) [Google Scholar]). The European Union has also supported the initiative as one way to ensure that European Union members attain the benchmarks for development assistance required under the Millennium Development Goals (Bianchi, 2005 Bianchi, S. 2005. "Development: EU aid proposals prepare for takeoff". In Inter Press Service News Agency http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=30166 (7 Sep), Accessed 12.10.05 [Google Scholar]). 4. The WTTC has been joined in this criticism by the Association of European Airlines, the Airports Council International, the Asia Pacific Travel Retail Association, the Association of Asia Pacific Airlines, the Duty Free World Council, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the Pacific Asia Travel Association and the Tax Free World Association (Airports Council International, 2005 Airports Council International. 2005. Travel industry unites against proposed aviation tax, Press release. (15 Jun) [Google Scholar]). 5. Lipman has held numerous posts of influence within the travel and tourism sector including serving as president of the WTTC and executive director of the IATA. He is currently serving as a special adviser to the Secretary General of the UNWTO, has been a prominent advocate of liberalisation in the aviation sector and has taken part in World Economic Forum events concerned with tourism. Lipman has also chaired Green Globe 21 (applying Agenda 21 standards to the tourism sector) and currently promotes the International Council of Tourism Partners, whose focus is on promoting poverty alleviation through tourism. 6. This meeting focused on debt cancellation and aid to Africa. It became a focus for a public campaign by the 'Make Poverty History' coalition as well as an awareness raiser on poverty led by Sir Bob Geldof who organised the 'Live 8' concerts that were broadcast globally. 7. An even more comprehensive listing of key attributes is found in Scheyvens' extensive quotation from an Australia tour agency called Just Travel. 'Just travel' is described from the point of view of the traveller as providing: the knowledge that s/he is not an agent of oppression but is attempting to participate in the liberation process; a travel experience that will offer genuine possibilities of forming meaningful relationships with people of different cultures; an opportunity to experience first hand what other people are doing to create new life possibilities for themselves and others; adequate preparation for their travel (Wenham & Wenham, cited in Scheyvens, 2002 Scheyvens, R. 2002. Tourism for Development: Empowering Communities, Harlow: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]: 104). Additionally, just travel from the point of view of the tourist-receiving communities promises: travellers will be people who are coming to share and not to dominate their lives; local accommodation and infrastructure will be used. As far as possible the services of foreign-owned and operated companies will be avoided; tourist sites and shows which degrade or debase the culture will be avoided. Opportunity will be given for local people to develop a real presentation of their culture with pride and dignity; travellers will be required to observe standards of decency and will not be tolerated if their presence is offensive to local people (Wenham & Wenham, cited in Scheyvens, 2002 Scheyvens, R. 2002. Tourism for Development: Empowering Communities, Harlow: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]: 104). 8. See Hamilton (2006) for a discussion of how contemporary capitalist-driven consumerism leads to material prosperity for a majority in the developed world, but results in unhappiness and spiritual impoverishment. He concludes that, instead of consumerism, a politics of 'wellbeing' is needed.