Dendrolimus sibiricus and Dendrolimus superans
2005; Wiley; Volume: 35; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Catalão
10.1111/j.1365-2338.2005.00878.x
ISSN1365-2338
Tópico(s)Entomological Studies and Ecology
ResumoEPPO BulletinVolume 35, Issue 3 p. 390-395 Free Access Dendrolimus sibiricus and Dendrolimus superans First published: 19 December 2005 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2338.2005.00878.xCitations: 13 European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Identity Taxonomic position: Insecta: Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature: Dendrolimus sibiricus and Dendrolimus superans are two closely related allopatric taxa, the former widespread in continental Russia and the latter present in Sakhalin, the Kurile Islands and northern Japan. According to the main international opinion, these are two separate species. However, many Russian scientists consider that there is a single species D. superans with two subspecies: Dendrolimus superans sibiricus Tschetverikov and Dendrolimus superans albolineatus Butler (Rozhkov, 1963; Epova & Pleshanov, 1995). The two species are very similar and are treated together in this data sheet. Dendrolimus sibiricus Name: Dendrolimus sibiricus Chetverikov Synonyms: Dendrolimus superans sibiricus Chetverikov, Dendrolimus laricis Chetverikov Common names: Siberian silk moth, Siberian moth, Siberian conifer silk moth, Siberian lasiocampid, larch caterpillar (in China) (English); (Russian) EPPO code: DENDSI Phytosanitary categorization: EPPO A2 action list no. 308 Dendrolimus superans Name: Dendrolimus superans Butler Synonyms: Dendrolimus superans albolineatus Butler, Dendrolimus albolineatus Matsumura, Dendrolimus yezoensis Matsumura, Odonestis superans Butler Common names: white-lined silk moth, Sakhalin silk moth, Japanese hemlock caterpillar (English), feuille morte du tsuga du Japon (French), Japanischer Douglasien-Spinner (German), (Russian), tuga-kareha (Japanese) EPPO code: DENDSU Phytosanitary categorization : EPPO A2 action list no. 330 Hosts D. sibiricus and D. superans can damage more than 20 species of Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picea and Tsuga. They can develop on practically all coniferous species in their natural area. The preferred hosts of D. sibiricus are: Abies sibirica, Abies nephrolepis, Pinus sibirica, Pinus koraiensis, Larix gmelinii, Larix sibirica, Picea ajanensis, Picea obovata. Those of D. superans are: Pinus pumila, Larix kamtschatica, Picea ajanensis and Abies sachalinensis (Rozhkov, 1963; Epova, Pleshanov, 1995). There are no specific reports concerning European species of conifers. Geographical distribution Dendrolimus sibiricus EPPO region: Russia (eastern part of European Russia and practically all Asian Russia except the extreme north, Sakhalin and Kurile Islands; Fig. 1) Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Geographical distribution of Dendrolimus sibiricus (Rozhkov, 1963). Asia: Russia (practically all Asian Russia except the extreme north, Sakhalin and Kurile Islands), Kazakhstan, China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Neimenggu), Korea Democratic People's Republic, Korea Republic, Mongolia (north) EU: absent D. sibiricus is presumed to have originated in Siberia but has apparently been spreading westwards at a rate that has been variously estimated as 12 km per year or 40–50 km per year. In 1955, Okunev (1955) considered that it had reached longitude 37° or 38° in European Russia (including the White Sea coast), but a later opinion (Rozhkov, 1963) places the most western point much further to the east, at longitude 52° (Fig. 1). The furthest west at which outbreaks of D. sibiricus have occurred were in the regions of Perm and Udmurtia (Koltunov et al., 1997; Gninenko, 1999), but in 2001, males of the species were captured in pheromone traps more than 1000 km to the west, close to Moscow. Dendrolimus superans EPPO region: Russia (Sakhalin, Kurile Islands). Asia: Japan (Hokkaido and northern Honshu), Russia (Sakhalin, Kurile Islands) (Matsumura, 1925; Rozhkov, 1963; Epova, Pleshanov, 1995). EU: absent Biology Dendrolimus sibiricus The host/parasite relationship of D. sibiricus is characterized by cycles of slow build-up of population numbers over several years, reaching a peak (outbreak) followed by a population collapse. Outbreaks of D. sibiricus occur with a periodicity of 10–11 years (Rozhkov, 1963; Epova & Pleshanov, 1995; Vorontsov, 1995), usually last 2–3 years and are often preceded by 2–3 years of water deficit. It has been noticed that the cycle of these outbreaks in some parts of the geographical range of the pest coincides with the cycle of solar activity, with the maximum development of the outbreaks occurring in years of increasing number of sunspots (Galkin, 1975, 1992). The first flight of D. sibiricus in the middle latitudes of its natural range usually occurs in the middle of July. Immediately after mating, females lay eggs on the needles, mainly in the lower part of the crowns. During outbreak years, eggs are laid throughout the tree and on the surrounding ground. One egg mass may contain few or up to 200 eggs. Each female lays an average of 200–300 eggs, with a maximum of 800 (Rozhkov, 1963; Vorontsov, 1995). Egg development usually takes 13–15 days (with an occasional maximum of 20–22). First-instar larvae eat the edges of needles and moult in 9–12 days. Second-instar larvae cause even more damage to the needles and develop for 3–4 weeks before moulting. Third-instar larvae descend to the soil in September and overwinter under moss. At the end of April, in the following year, the larvae return to the crowns, eat complete needles, and sometimes the bark of young shoots and cones. They moult after one month and again at the end of July or in August. In autumn, the larvae return to the soil and overwinter for a second time. In May and June of the following year, the larvae feed very intensively. During this period, they eat about 95% of the food that they need for their development and it is then that the major damage occurs. In total, larvae moult 5–7 times and have, correspondingly, 6–8 instars. In June, the larvae make cocoons and the development of pupae within them takes about one month. The full life cycle usually takes two years. In southern parts of the natural range, however, one generation can develop in a single year, whereas, in northern regions, the completion of a generation can sometimes take three years (Rozhkov, 1963; Galkin, 1993; Vorontsov, 1995). Dendrolimus superans The biology of D. superans is very similar to that of D. sibiricus. Outbreaks have been recorded in Sakhalin since 1920, mainly in larch-pine forests in the northern part of the island. In the south, the pest damages spruce-fir forests but only one major outbreak has been recorded. Outbreaks also occur in spruce-fir forests on the Kurile islands (Epova & Pleshanov, 1995). Flights of D. superans begin in June/July and last till August. The pest prefers mature forests (more than 50 years old). The life cycle may take one or two years (or even more) depending on climate conditions; development takes much longer in the north of Sakhalin than in the south (Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989; Gninenko & Baranchikov, 2004), and presumably than in Japan. Detection and identification Symptoms Defoliation of Pinus, Larix, Abies or Picea spp. is usually very spectacular. The presence of caterpillars is easily detected. The caterpillars and adults can easily be distinguished from related species, even from the European Dendrolimus pini, which is the most closely related species. Adult males can be captured using pheromone traps containing a specific pheromone (Pletniev et al., 1999). Morphology Eggs About 2.2 × 1.9 mm, elongate, light-green when laid, turning creamy-white, then becoming darker and spotted (Fig. 2). Figure 2Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Egg masses of Dendrolimus sibiricus. Larva The caterpillar (Fig. 3) is 50–80 (D. sibiricus) or 60–82 (D. superans) mm long. The following description of the full-grown caterpillar applies to both species: mainly black or dark-brown with numerous spots, with long hairs; the 2nd and 3rd segments crossed by blue-black stripes; labrum in the middle shallowly incised, epicranium fuscous maculated, in the middle with a pale on each side with a yellowish-brown longitudinal stripe; each segment dorsally covered with silvery scales, reflecting a light shade of golden, so that in fresh specimens the dorsal hexagonal markings not distinct; stigma yellowish-white, on its sides with some reddish markings and white scales; dorsal marking of each abdominal segment hexagonal. Ventral surface with a series of fuscous spots (D. sibiricus) or a yellowish-brown stripe (D. superans) (Matsumura, 1925; Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989). Figure 3Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Caterpillar of Dendrolimus sibiricus. Pupa The pupa (Fig. 4) is brown, 33–39 mm long in females, 28–34 mm in males. Figure 4Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Caterpillar before pupation and pupa of Dendrolimus sibiricus. Adult The female wingspan is 60–80 mm in D. sibiricus (Fig. 5) and 77–102 mm in D. superans, and the male 40–60 or 60–79 mm, respectively. The female body length averages 39 mm, and the male 31 mm, in D. sibiricus. The following description applies to both species: colour from light yellowish-brown or light grey to dark brown or almost black; fore wings crossed by two characteristic dark stripes; white spot situated at the centre of the fore wing; antemedial line to the primaries straight from the costa to the discoidal spot, then becoming oblique, reaches the hind margin at the inner side of the discoidal spot; vein 9 to the primaries opening at the costa and not reaching apex. The postmedial line is much incurved near the costa in D. sibiricus and only slightly incurved in D. superans (Matsumura, 1925; Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989). Figure 5Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Cocoon and neonate adult moth of Dendrolimus sibiricus. Pathways for movement Both species can spread by flight of the adult moths (up to 100 km per year) (Rozhkov, 1963). All stages of the life cycle can be transported on plants moving in trade, particularly plants for planting and cut branches (including Christmas trees). During outbreaks especially, eggs and larvae may be associated with wood carrying bark, or isolated bark, and may be present as contaminating pests on other products. Pest significance Economic impact Dendrolimus sibiricus D. sibiricus is the most important defoliator of coniferous trees (Pinus sibirica, Larix sibirica, Abies sibirica, Picea obovata) in Russia and Kazakhstan (Rozhkov, 1963; Epova & Pleshanov, 1995; Vorontsov, 1995), and one of the most important defoliators of Larix gmelinii in China (Yang & Gu, 1995). Outbreaks occur over enormous areas (many thousands of hectares) and often lead to the death of entire forests. The evaluation made by Florov (1948) showed that, during a period of 90 years (1855–1945), D. sibiricus killed at least 4 million ha of Russian forests. According to Kolomets (1958), during the 25-year period 1932–1957, D. sibiricus damaged 7 million ha of forests in Western Siberia and Chita Oblast alone, causing the death of forests in half of this area. Similar data has been published by many other scientists (e.g. Rozhkov, 1963). During outbreaks, trees can be defoliated during 2–3 successive years and many trees are unable to withstand such a long period of defoliation. Furthermore, the outbreaks of D. sibiricus are also very often followed by outbreaks of wood borers (scolytids, cerambycids and others), particularly Ips typographus, Ips subelongatus (OEPP/EPPO, 2005a), Scolytus morawitzi (OEPP/EPPO, 2005b), Monochamus galloprovincialis, Xylotrechus altaicus (OEPP/EPPO, 2005c), Melanophila guttulata (Pavlovskii & Shtakelberg, 1955; Rozhkov, 1963; Mamaev, 1990; Epova & Pleshanov, 1995; Vorontsov, 1995). These pests are able to kill trees which are heavily stressed by D. sibiricus. Forests may also be predisposed to forest fires. Reforestation of affected areas is often very complicated and takes much time, resulting in serious changes in the environment over large areas. Dendrolimus superans D. superans is similar in importance on Sakhalin. In 1959/1964, the pest severely damaged larch-pine forests on 15 356 ha, and caused the death of 6526 ha of forests (Govorukhin, 1965). In 1986/1989, the pest caused the death of 1800 ha of forests (Pechenina, 1991). During outbreaks, pest populations reach 300–1000 pupae per tree, trees can be defoliated during 2–3 successive years and many trees are unable to withstand such a long period of defoliation. Dry forests situated on slopes of southern and south-western exposure are most susceptible. Furthermore, as for D. sibiricus, outbreaks of D. superans are very often followed by outbreaks of wood borers (scolytids, cerambycids and others). These pests are able to kill trees which are heavily stressed by D. superans (Govorukhin, 1965; Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989; Pechenina, 1991; Gninenko & Baranchikov, 2004). Similar outbreaks of D. superans occur in northern Japan (Maeto, 1991). It may be noted that other Dendrolimus spp., e.g. Dendrolimus spectabilis (Butler), occur further south in Japan, and in Korea, and probably present a similar risk, although they have not been evaluated in detail. Control Significant control efforts against D. sibiricus and D. superans (mainly aerial treatment with chemical and bacterial products) are undertaken during outbreak years in Russia (Ivliev, 1960; Ageenko, 1969; Baranovskii, Remorov & Lamikhov, 1988; Maslov, 1988; Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989; Epova & Pleshanov, 1995; Vorontsov, 1995) and other countries within the range of the pests. Under non-outbreak conditions, the natural enemies of D. sibiricus (the egg parasitoids Telenomus gracilis, Telenomus tetratomus, Trichogramma dendrolimi, Ooencyrtus pinicolus; the larval and pupal parasitoid Rhogas dendrolimi; the microorganisms Bacillus dendrolimus, Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, polyhedrosis viruses and some other viruses) play an important role in the regulation of its population density (Nikiforov, 1970; Gorshkov, 1973; Baranovskii, Remorov & Lamikhov, 1988; Yang & Gu, 1995; Vorontsov, 1995). An even longer list, additional to the above, is available for D. superans: Telenomus dendrolimusi, Pachyneuron solitarius, Exorista larvarum, Masicera ashingivora, M. zimini, Apanteles ordinarius, Apanteles liparidis, Campoplex leptogaster, Stylocryptor profligator, Anilasta valida, Habronyx heros, Exochilum giganteum, Isorepus stercorator, Agria punctata, Echynomia magna, Larvaevora larvarum, Pimpla instigator, Pimpla disparis, Pimpla pluto, Pimpla tabatai, Apechtis dendrolimi, Parasarcophaga uliginisa, Parasarcophaga albiceps, Pseudosarcophaga affinis and Sarcophaga carnaria; many species of coleopteran (mainly Carabidae), hemipteran (mainly Pentatomidae and Reduviidae) and hymenopteran predators. The most numerous and efficient natural enemies of D. superans seems to be Telenomus spp., which usually infests 20–40% of eggs of the pest. During outbreaks, the parasitization level may reach 35% of larvae and 70% of pupae (Matsumura, 1925; Ivliev, 1960; Kasparyan, 1965; Bushmelev & Yurchenko, 1989; Yurchenko & Turova, 2002; Gninenko & Baranchikov, 2004). Phytosanitary risk D. sibiricus and D. superans are both considered as very serious defoliators of coniferous forests in the areas where they occur and are very likely to be able to establish in most EPPO countries, particularly those in the north and centre of the region. It is very likely that these Dendrolimus spp., which have a wide host range on different conifer genera in their native range, should be able to attack other species of the same genera in the western part of the EPPO region, where they are important forest and amenity trees. Phytosanitary measures D. sibiricus was added in 2002 to the EPPO A2 action list, and endangered EPPO member countries are thus recommended to regulate it as a quarantine pest. Similarly, D. superans was added to the list in 2005. D. sibiricus is apparently slowly spreading westwards, and it may be useful, in areas at the border of the present range, for surveys to be conducted using pheromone traps (Pletniev et al., 1999) to detect entry of the pest, and for control measures to be used for suppression of the pest, with a view to containment and eradication. D. superans is relatively unlikely to invade the adjoining areas where D. sibiricus already occurs, and so presents more of an A1 risk to the western part of the EPPO region. To prevent introduction of both D. sibiricus and D. superans by international movement of commodities, plants for planting and cut branches of host plants from the infested areas should be free from soil according to OEPP/EPPO (1994). Alternatively, such commodities could originate in a pest-free area, be produced in protected houses, or fumigated, or imported during winter. Wood should be debarked or heat-treated, or originate in a pest-free area, or be imported during winter, and isolated bark should be treated to destroy contaminating insects. References Ageenko AS, ed. (1969) [Forests of the Far East.] Lesnaya Promyshlennost, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Baranovskii VI, Remorov VV & Lamikhov KL (1988) [Ecological aspects of the use of micro-organisms against Dendrolimus sibiricus. ] Lesnoe Khozyaistvo no. 8, 54– 55 (in Russian). Bushmelev IV & Yurchenko GI (1989) [Study of Dendrolimus superans albolineatus on Sakhalin.] Trudy Dal'nevostochnogo Nauchno Issledovatel'skogo Instituta Lesnogo Khozyaistva no. 31, 119– 125 (in Russian). Epova VI & Pleshanov AS (1995) [Forest Regions Injured by Leaf-eating insects in Asian Russia.] Nauka, Novosibirsk (RU) (in Russian). Florov DN (1948) [A Pest of Siberian Forests (Dendrolimus sibiricus).] OGIZ, Irkutsk (RU) (in Russian). Galkin GI (1975) [Outbreaks of Dendrolimus sibiricus and solar activity.] Lesnoe Khozyaistvo no. 8, 83– 85 (in Russian). Galkin GI (1992) [Periodicity of mass multiplication of pests.] Zashchita Rastenii no. 12, 37– 39 (in Russian). Galkin GI (1993) [Biology of Dendrolimus superans sibiricus in Evenkia.] Zoologicheskii Zhurnal 72, 142– 146 (in Russian). Gninenko YuI (1999) [Problems of forest protection against Dendrolimus sibiricus.] In: [ Protection of Taiga Forests of Siberia against Dendrolimus sibiricus ] (Eds YuI Gninenko, NI Liamtsev & VA Ferbikov). Proceedings of Scientific-Practical Seminar, Gorno-Altaisk, pp. 12– 18 (in Russian). Gninenko YuI & Baranchikov YuN (2004) [Dendrolimus superans yezoensis.] In: Sakhalin Coniferous Forests (in Russian) (in press). Gorshkov NV (1973) [Role of egg parasites in regulating the population of Dendrolimus sibiricus.] Lesnoe Khozyaistvo no. 4, 75– 77 (in Russian). Govorukhin VI (1965) [Report of forest-pathological survey of Okhta leskhoz of the Sakhalinles enterprise of the Far East Sovnarkhoz.] Izdatel'stvo 5-oi Moskovskoi AFLU Ekspeditsii V/O Lesproekt, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Ivliev LA (1960) [Parasites of Dendrolimus superans in the Far East and neighbouring countries.] Soobshcheniya Dal'nevostochnogo Filiala Sibirskogo Otdeleniya Akademii Nauk SSSR no. 12, 119– 153 (in Russian). Kasparyan DR (1965) [Parasites of Dendrolimus superans albolineatus in the north of Sakhalin.] Trudy Dal'nevostochnogo Nauchno Issledovatel'skogo Instituta Lesnogo Khozyaistva no. 7, 520– 526 (in Russian). Kolomets NG (1958) [Phytocenological characteristics of outbreaks of Siberian silk moth in Western Siberia.] First Inter-Universities Conference on Forest Protection, pp. 37– 38. Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Koltunov EV, Fedorenko SI & Okhlupin OV (1997) [Dendrolimus sibiricus in the spruce-fir forests of the plains east of the Urals.] Lesnoe Khozyaistvo no. 2, 51– 52 (in Russian). Maeto K (1991) Outbreaks of Dendrolimus superans related to weather in Hokkaido. Applied Entomology and Zoology 26, 275– 277. Mamaev YB (1990) [Outbreaks of stem pests in larch forests of the Tuva ASSR damaged by Dendrolimus sibiricus.] Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii – Lesnoi Zhurnal no. 2, 16– 19 (in Russian). Maslov AD (1988) [Guide to Forest Protection against Pests and Diseases.] Agropromizdat, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Matsumura S (1925) On the three species of Dendrolimus which attack spruce and fir trees in Japan, with their parasites and predaceous insects. Annals of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR XXVI, 27– 50. Nikiforov GM (1970) [The characteristics of a massive outbreak of Dendrolimus sibiricus.] Zashchita Rastenii no. 9, 38– 39 (in Russian). OEPP/EPPO (1994) EPPO Standard PM 3/54 Growing plants in growing medium prior to export. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 24, 326– 327. Okunev PP (1955) [Geographical distribution and zones of injuriousness of Dendrolimus Sibiricus.] In: [ Geographical Problems in Forestry ], Vol. 5, pp. 32– 48. Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow–Leningrad (RU) (in Russian). Pavlovskii EN & Shtakelberg AA (1955) [Guide to Forest Pests.] Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow–Leningrad (RU) (in Russian). Pechenina TV (1991) [Report of forest-pathological survey of Anivsk, Dolinsk, Korsakov, Krasnogorsk, Okhta, Smirnykhovsk, Tomari, Kholmsk, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk leskhozes of Sakhalin forestry association.] Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo Spetsializirovannogo Lesoustroitel'nogo Predpriyatiya, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Pletniev VA, Vendiilo NV, Ponomarev VL, Mitroshin DB & Lebed'eva KB (1999) [The search for a pheromone of Dendrolimus sibiricus.] In: [Protection of Taiga Forests of Siberia against Dendrolimus sibiricus] (Eds YI Gninenko, NI Liamtsev & VA Ferbikov), pp. 56– 57. Gorno-Altaisk (RU) (in Russian). Rozhkov AS (1963) [Dendrolimus sibiricus.] Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Vorontsov AI (1995) [Forest Entomology.], 5th edn. Ekologiya, Moscow (RU) (in Russian). Yang ZQ & Gu YQ (1995) [Egg-parasitic wasps of the larch caterpillar in Daxing-anling mountains with description of new species.] Scientia Silvae Sinicae 31, 223– 231 (in Chinese). Yurchenko GI & Turova GI (2002) [Parasites of Dendrolimus sibiricus and D. superans in the Far East of Russia.] Entomologicheskie Issledovaniya v Sibiri no. 2, 75– 86 (in Russian). Citing Literature Volume35, Issue3December 2005Pages 390-395 FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation
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