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Primary Immunodeficiencies

1998; Elsevier BV; Volume: 73; Issue: 9 Linguagem: Inglês

10.4065/73.9.865

1942-5546

Rosa Ten,

Neonatal Respiratory Health Research

The primary immunodeficiencies are congenital disorders that affect the function of the immune system. The result is an inadequate immune response to microorganisms, selfantigens, and tumor cells, which leads to increased susceptibility to infections, autoimmunity, or malignant disease. A substantial advance has been made in the understanding of the exact molecular mechanisms leading to primary immunodeficiencies; however, for some types, a specific genetic defect has not yet been determined. The life expectancy of patients with primary immunodeficiencies has increased considerably because of bone marrow transplantation and replacement therapies. Gene therapy has already been used for a particular type of immunodeficiency and is a promising alternative for the future management of many other types of primary immunodeficiencies. A better understanding of the genetic defects that lead to primary immunodeficiencies would result in the development of novel therapeutic strategies. The primary immunodeficiencies are congenital disorders that affect the function of the immune system. The result is an inadequate immune response to microorganisms, selfantigens, and tumor cells, which leads to increased susceptibility to infections, autoimmunity, or malignant disease. A substantial advance has been made in the understanding of the exact molecular mechanisms leading to primary immunodeficiencies; however, for some types, a specific genetic defect has not yet been determined. The life expectancy of patients with primary immunodeficiencies has increased considerably because of bone marrow transplantation and replacement therapies. Gene therapy has already been used for a particular type of immunodeficiency and is a promising alternative for the future management of many other types of primary immunodeficiencies. A better understanding of the genetic defects that lead to primary immunodeficiencies would result in the development of novel therapeutic strategies. The primary immunodeficiencies (PIs) are rare disorders, most of which are due to genetic defects that affect cell maturation or function at different levels during hematopoiesis. The incidence of PIs, excluding asymptomatic IgA deficiency and mannose binding lectin (MBL) deficiency, is about 1 in 5,000 live births. The underlying molecular mechanism is known for some, but not all, PIs (Table 1). Currently, substantial effort is devoted to the characterization of new genetic defects involved in the pathogenesis of PIs, which will help in the development of new types of gene therapy.Table 1Classification of Primary Immunodeficiencies*Abx = antibiotic; AD = autosomal dominant; ADA = adenosine deaminase; AR = autosomal recessive; BMT = bone marrow transplantation; btk = Bruton's tyrosine kinase; CID = combined immunodeficiency; E = eosinophils; HLA = human leukocyte antigen; IFN = Interferon; IL = interleukin; IV-Ig = intravenous immunoglobulin; L = ligand; MBL = mannose binding lectin; MHC = major histocompatibility complex; N = neutrophils; NK = natural killer; P = platelets; PEG = polyethylene glycol; PNP = purine nucleoside phosphorylase; R = receptor; RAG = recombination activating genes; SCID = severe combined immunodeficiency; WASP = Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein.Phenotype†+ = present; − = absent or decreased; ± = normal or decreased.InheritanceMolecular defectIgT cellsB cellsNK cellsOtherTreatmentAutoimmunityMalignancyReferenceT-cell defects SCID Reticular dysgenesisAR?−−−−−BMT+−1 AlymphocytosisARRAG-1 and RAG-2−−−++BMT+—2 Deficit of T and NK cellsX-linkedy-Chain-IL-2R−−+−+BMT+−3ARJak3−−+−+BMT4 ADA deficiencyARADA+BMT, ADA gene therapy, PEG-ADA+5 PNP deficiencyARPNP−−+−+BMT+−6 Omenn syndromeAR5′-nucleo-tidase ?—T——ÎEBMT+—7T-cell activation deficiencies (CID) MHC deficiency HLA-class IIARCIITA/RFX5+++++BMT++8 HLA-class IARTAP2±++++BMT9 CD3 deficiencyARy, E CD3±CD3+++BMT?++10 Zap-70 deficiencyARZap-70±4-CD8+++BMT++11 Deficiency in calcium influxAR?±++++?12 Deficit in IL-2 synthesisAR?±++++BMT++13Defects in DNA repair Ataxia telangiectasiaARATM gene+++++IV-Ig+++14 Bloom's syndromeARBLM±++++IV-Ig−++15 Nijmegen syndromeAR?±++++IV-Ig−++16 Xeroderma pigmentosumAR?+++++IV-Ig−++17Others Wiskott-Aldrich syndromeX-linked ARWASP ?±+++IPBMT/splenec-tomy++18 DiGeorge syndromeSporadicdel22qll±±+++BMT/thymus——19 Hyper-IgM syndromeX-linked ARCD40L ?−TlgM++++IV-Ig/BMT++20B-cell defects Button's agammaglobulinemiaX-linkedbtk−+−++IV-Ig−−21 Common variable immunodeficiencySporadic?−++++IV-Ig/IL-2++22 IgA deficiencySporadic, AD, AR?+llgA+++++Abx+−23 IgG subclass deficiencyAR?+4. IgG++++IV-Ig++24 Anti-polysaccharide antibody deficiencySporadic?+++++IV-Ig−−25 Hyper-IgE syndromeAR?+TlgE+++TeAbx−−26 Lymphoprolife rative syndrome X-linkedX-linked?+++++BMT−+27 AutoimmunityADfasT+T++?++28Phagocyte defects Leukocyte adhesion deficiency IARCD18++++TnBMT−−29 IIARSialyl Lewis x++++ÎN?−−29 Chediak-Higashi syndromeARLYST+++++BMT−−30 Chronic granulomatous diseaseX-linked ARgp91 p22, p47, p67+++++IFN-y, BMT−−31 MBL deficiencyADMBL+++++Abx−−32 Susceptible atypical mycobacteriaARIFN-y-R+++++?−−33Complement deficiencies Complement components deficiencyARComplement+++++Immunization+−34 Properdin, factors I and H deficiencyX-linked, ARProperdin, I, H+++++?+−34* Abx = antibiotic; AD = autosomal dominant; ADA = adenosine deaminase; AR = autosomal recessive; BMT = bone marrow transplantation; btk = Bruton's tyrosine kinase; CID = combined immunodeficiency; E = eosinophils; HLA = human leukocyte antigen; IFN = Interferon; IL = interleukin; IV-Ig = intravenous immunoglobulin; L = ligand; MBL = mannose binding lectin; MHC = major histocompatibility complex; N = neutrophils; NK = natural killer; P = platelets; PEG = polyethylene glycol; PNP = purine nucleoside phosphorylase; R = receptor; RAG = recombination activating genes; SCID = severe combined immunodeficiency; WASP = Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein.† + = present; − = absent or decreased; ± = normal or decreased. Open table in a new tab The clinical manifestations of PIs include recurrent infections, autoimmune disorders, malignant lesions, and allergic diseases. Because these manifestations can also be features of acquired or secondary immunodeficiencies, such as the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or protein-losing enteropathies, secondary causes must be ruled out when an immunodeficiency is suspected. Although PIs may initially manifest with a life-threatening infection or a severe autoimmune disorder, their expression can also be relatively mild, and thus physicians must be alert to make the diagnosis. The initial manifestations usually occur within the first years of life, but, with the common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), IgG subclass deficiency, or deficiencies of the late components of complement, patients can be asymptomatic until the third or fourth decade of life. The nature of the immunodeficiency can usually be determined by the type and the site of the infection. For example, humoral (B cell) defects lead to increased susceptibility to encapsulated bacteria (sinopulmonary infections with pyogenic bacteria), enterovirus (gastrointestinal infection), and parasites. Cellular (T cell) immunodeficiencies are characterized by opportunistic infections with viruses, Pneumocystis, and fungi. Phagocytic defects are associated with pyogenic infections, particularly sinopulmonary and abscesses that involve the skin and lymph nodes, as well as fungal infections. Patients with complement deficiencies have pyogenic infections, sepsis, or recurrent meningitis with encapsulated organisms. Autoimmune or inflammatory manifestations may be directed at a target organ or may be systemic. They are common in certain PIs such as CVID, IgA deficiency, and deficiencies of the initial components of complement. Autoimmunity is probably due to a dysregulation of the immune system secondary to the genetic defect that caused the PI, but the mechanisms underlying these phenomena are unclear. Allergic symptoms are common in some PIs. They include eczema in the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS), hyper-IgE syndrome, and CVID and other manifestations of atopy such as asthma and rhinitis in selective IgA and IgG subclass deficiencies. The risk of malignant disease, mainly of hematologic origin, is increased in ataxia-telangiectasia (AT), WAS, CVID, selective IgA and IgG subclass deficiencies, and hyper-IgM syndrome. Early diagnosis of PIs is essential for prevention of irreversible end-organ damage from chronic infections. The initial assessment of a patient with a suspected PI includes a past medical history, family history, physical examination, chest roentgenography, and basic screening immunologic tests. The medical history should emphasize the frequency, severity, and responsiveness to treatment of past infections, manifestations of autoimmunity, and malignant disease. A review of systems to detect any possible causes of secondary immunodeficiencies is essential. In addition, an immunization record and any complications associated with previous live virus vaccines should be noted. A complete list of current medications should be obtained because many commonly used drugs, such as corticosteroids, are immunosuppressive. Elicitation of the family history should address any consanguinity. A detailed family tree should include the ages and gender of all affected members to determine the pattern of inheritance. During the physical examination of the patient, the clinician should note failure to thrive, weight loss, size of tonsils and lymph nodes, presence of organomegaly, dermatitis, thrush, and clubbing. Screening diagnostic tests for suspected PIs include a complete blood cell count with differential, serum Ig quantification, delayed type hypersensitivity skin test, and total serum hemolytic complement. If the patient has had recurrent pyogenic infections, neutrophil function can be assessed with the nitroblue tetrazolium test or by chemoluminescence analysis for the diagnosis of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD). A human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) serology, as well as serum albumin and urinary protein analysis, should be done (if clinically indicated) to exclude secondary causes of immunodeficiency. If the patient has lymphopenia or if serum Ig or results of the delayed type hypersensitivity skin test are abnormal, lymphocyte surface markers (CD3, CD4, CD8, CD19, and CD16) and lymphocyte proliferation (to mitogens and antigens) can be determined. The antibody response to specific protein and polysaccharide antigens after immunization is also helpful in the evaluation of humoral immunodeficiencies. When a PI is diagnosed, the importance of screening of family members depends on the pattern of inheritance. Carriers of most X-linked PIs can be detected with Xchromosomal inactivation studies. Prenatal diagnosis for many PIs is available, and thus parents have a reproductive choice. Cellular immunodeficiencies comprise 20% of all PIs. They manifest with defects not only of the cellular immunity but also of the humoral response because the ability of B lymphocytes to produce antibodies is primarily dependent on T cells. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) can manifest either with severe opportunistic infections or with chronic diarrhea and failure to thrive. About half are X-linked, and half are autosomal recessive (AR). Of patients with the AR-SCID, 50% have adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. Laboratory findings in patients with SCID typically demonstrate severe lymphopenia, except in those with SCID hyper-B and Omenn syndrome. In addition to lymphocytes, other hematologic cell linages may be affected. For example, in reticular dysgenesis, development of multiple cell linages is impaired because the primary defect affects the stem cells early during hematogenesis.1Azcona C Alzlna V Barona P Sierrasesúmaga L Villa-Elizaga I Use of recombinant human granulocyte macrophage colony simulating factor in an infant with reticular dysgenesis.Eur J Pediatr. 1994; 153: 164-166PubMed Google Scholar In alymphocytosis, there is a defect in the T-cell receptor and Ig gene rearrangement at the JH region. This defect is due to mutations in the recombination activating genes (RAG-1 and RAG-2), resulting in failure of lymphocyte differentiation and absence of circulating T and B lymphocytes.2Schwarz K Gauss GH Ludwig L Pannlcke U Li Z Lindner D et al.RAG mutations in human B cell-negative SCID.Science. 1996; 274: 97-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (436) Google Scholar The SCID hyper-B is due to a congenital deficiency of the y chain of the interleukin (IL)-2 receptor3DISanto JP Rieux-Laucat F Dautry-Varsat A Fischer A de Saint Basie G Defective human interleukin 2 receptor ? chain in an atypical X chromosome-linked severe combined immunodeficiency with peripheral T cells.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994; 91: 9466-9470Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar or to a deficiency of Jak3 (Janus kinase),4Russell SM Tayebi N NakaJima H Riedy MC Roberts JL Aman MJ et al.Mutation of Jak3 in a patient with SCID: essential role of Jak3 in lymphoid development.Science. 1995; 270: 797-800Crossref PubMed Scopus (680) Google Scholar an important kinase protein involved in intracellular signal transduction. Patients with SCID hyper-B have normal or high numbers of B lymphocytes but have complete absence of T lymphocytes and natural killer cells because both IL-2 receptor and are ak3 are essential for their development. Children with other types of SCID may also have circulating lymphocytes of maternal origin because they are unable to reject them due to the lack of a competent immune system of their own. These children often have signs of chronic graft-versus-host disease. If this is suspected, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing of the peripheral blood lymphocytes is warranted. ADA and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) deficiencies are defects in enzymes involved in the purine metabolism that result in the accumulation of toxic metabolites and death of lymphocytes.5Hirschhorn R Adenosine deaminase deficiency.Immunodefic Rev. 1990; 2: 175-198PubMed Google Scholar, 6Markert ML Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency.Jmmunodefic Rev. 1991; 3: 45-81PubMed Google Scholar Patients with ADA and PNP deficiencies can have a mild, fluctuating, or severe course. ADA deficiency accounts for 15% of all SCID. Patients with ADA deficiency have characteristic skeletal abnormalities, whereas those with PNP deficiency have neurologic manifestations. The Omenn syndrome is characterized by erythrodermia, polyadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, severe infections, and failure to thrive. Patients with this syndrome have circulating activated T cells that infiltrate several organs, B-cell eosinophilia, and lymphocyte depletion from lymphoid organs that are infiltrated with histiocytes. A deficiency of 5′-nucleotidase has been inconsistently reported. Such patients always die within the first year of life unless they undergo a bone marrow transplantation (BMT).7Le Deist F Fischer A Durandy A Arnaud-Battandier F Nezelof C Hamet M et al.Déficit immunitaire mixte et grave avec hyperéosinophilie: etude immunologique de cinq observations.Arch Fr Pediatr. 1985; 42: 11-16PubMed Google Scholar The treatment of SCID necessitates a BMT. Alternative treatment of ADA deficiency is enzyme replacement therapy, but it is extremely expensive.35Hershfield MS Buckley RH Greenberg ML Melton AL Schiff R Hatem C et al.Treatment of adenosine deaminase deficiency with polyethylene glycol-modified adenosine deaminase.V Engl J Med. 1937; 316: 589-596Crossref Scopus (363) Google Scholar Gene therapy has also been tried for ADA deficiency, but it has been unsuccessful and is still considered experimenta.36Kohn DB Weinberg Kl Nolta JA Hels LN Lenarsky C Crooks GM et al.Engraftment of gene-modified umbilical cord blood cells in neonates with adenosine deaminase deficiency.Nat Med. 1995; 1: 1017-1023Crossref PubMed Scopus (505) Google Scholar The outcome of patients with SCID is always fatal if treatment is not administered, but those who undergo successful BMT can live a normal life. Functional T-cell defects comprise a heterogeneous group of disorders in which the common feature is the inability of T cells to respond to antigens or mitogens (or both) in a lymphocyte proliferation assay. Patients with this disorder have a normal number of lymphocytes, usually of normal phenotype, and may have normal to low levels of serum Ig. The molecular defect may involve different steps in the T-cell activation pathway (Fig. 1). The “bare lymphocyte syndrome” is due to a mutation in one of the genes encoding proteins that regulate transcription of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). MHC class II deficiency results from distinct mutations in multiple trans-activating regulatory genes, whereas MHC class I deficiency is due to a mutation in the gene encoding the TAP2 transporter protein. Patients with the bare lymphocyte syndrome do not express MHC class II or class I molecules in any tissue and have multiple infections; frequently, they die at a young age.8Relth W Steimle V Mach B Molecular defects in the bare lymphocyte syndrome and regulation of MHC class II genes.Immunol Today. 1995; 16: 539-546Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar, 9Donato L de la Salle H Hanau D Tonglo MM Oswald M Vandevenne A et al.Association of HLA class I antigen deficiency related to a TAP2 gene mutation with familial bronchiectasis.J Pediatr. 1995; 127: 895-900Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar Many other T-cell activation defects have been described. These include the defective expression of the E or y chains of the CD3 molecule10Alarcon B Reguelro JR Arnaiz-Villena A Terhorst C Familial defect in the surface expression of the T-cell receptor-CD3 complex.N Engl J Med. 1988; 319: 1203-1208Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar or of the Zap-70 kinase associated with the T-cell receptor,11Arpaia E Shahar M Dadi H Cohen A Roifman CM Defective T cell receptor signaling and CD8+ thymic selection in humans lacking zap-70 kinase.Cell. 1994; 76: 947-958Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (482) Google Scholar defect of calcium influx to the cell after T-cell activation,12Le Deist F Hivroz C Partiseti M Thomas C Buc HA Oleastro M et al.A primary T-cell immunodeficiency associated with defective trans-membrane calcium influx.Blood. 1995; 85: 1053-1062Crossref PubMed Google Scholar and abnormal binding of the transcription factor NF-AT,13Castigli E Pahwa R Good RA Geha RS Chatila TA. Molecular basis of a multiple lymphokine deficiency in a patient with severe combined immunodeficiency.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993; 90: 4728-4732Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar which is involved in the regulation of transcription of multiple lymphokines (Fig. 1). The clinical manifestations of functional T-cell defects include mild to severe infections and autoimmunity. Treatment depends on the severity of symptoms. Patients with the bare lymphocyte syndrome and with Zap-70 deficiency must undergo BMT, whereas other patients may do well with prophylactic antibiotics and intravenous (IV)-Ig replacement therapy. The PIs associated with defects in DNA repair include AT, Bloom's syndrome (BS), Nijmegen syndrome (NS), and xeroderma pigmentosum. They are characterized by a defect in the DNA repair machinery that leads to chromosomal instability and hypersensitivity to agents that cause DNA strand breaks; thus, the patient is predisposed to the development of malignant disease and combined immunodeficiency with hypogammaglobulinemia and cellular anergy. A T is due to a mutation of the A TM gene, the product of which is believed to have a role in tumor suppression.14Rasio D Negrini M Croce CM Genomic organization of the ATM locus involved in alaxia-telangieclasia.Cancer Res. 1995; 55: 6053-6057PubMed Google Scholar Clinically manifests AT manifests with ataxia and progressive neurologic degeneration, oculocutaneous telangiectasia, combined immunodeficiency, and a high incidence of malignant disease (l00-fold), although not all these features need to be present. Treatment is supportive. Patients are usually wheelchair-dependent by the second decade of life and die of lung infections or malignant disease before they are 30 years old. Interestingly, relatives of patients with AT also have a high incidence of malignant disease, particularly lymphoma and breast and colon cancer, and should be closely monitored. BS is due to a mutation in BLM, a gene that encodes a protein homologous to the RecQ helicases.15Ellis NA Groden J Ye TZ Straughen J Lennon DJ Ciocci S et al.The Bloom's syndrome gene product is homologous to RecQ helieases.Cell. 1995; 83: 655-666Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1210) Google Scholar Patients with BS are short and have sun-sensitive facial erythema and recurrent infections. NS manifests at birth, and characteristics are short stature, birdlike facies, microcephaly, and recurrent infections. The genetic defect for NS has not been determined but has been mapped to chromosome 8q21.16Saar K Chrzanowska HH Stumm M Jung M Nürnberg G Wienker TF et al.The gene for the ataxia-telangiectasia variant, Nijmegen breakage syndrome, maps to a 1-cM interval on chromosome 8q21.Am J Hum Genet. 1997; 60: 605-610PubMed Google Scholar Patients with xeroderma pigmentosum have development of skin neoplasms of ectodermal and mesodermal origin and also have a cellular immunodeficiency.17Dupuy JM Lafloret D A defect of cellular immunity in Xeroderma pigmentosum.Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1974; 3: 52-58Crossref PubMed Scopus (54) Google Scholar WAS is characterized by the triad of thrombopathia (thrombocytopenia, small platelets, and platelet dysfunction), eczema, and combined immunodeficiency. These three components, however, occur together in only 27% of patients with WAS. About 20% of patients have thrombopathia only, and 5% have only immunodeficiency. The molecular defect is due to a mutation of the gene encoding the WAS protein (WASP), which results in the absence or aberrant expression of the WASP in lymphocytes and megakaryocytes. The exact function of the WASP is unknown, but it is thought to be an important component of the cytoskeleton through polymerization with actin.18Derry JM Ochs HD Francke U Isolation of a novel gene mutated in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome.Cell. 1994; 78: 635-644Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (828) Google Scholar The absence of the WASP leads to decreased platelet size, loss of T-cell surface microvilli, and defective T-cell and platelet function. The treatment of choice is BMT if an identical donor is available. Otherwise, splenectomy improves the platelet number and increases survival.37Mullen CA Anderson KD Blaese RM Splenectomy and/or bone marrow transplantation in the management of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome: long-term follow-up of 62 cases.Blood. 1993; 82: 2961-2966PubMed Google Scholar The DiGeorge syndrome is due to a deletion in chromosome 22q11, which leads to abnormal migration of the third and fourth branchial pouches during embryogenesis, with hypoplasia to aplasia of the thymus and parathyroids, truncal cardiovascular malformations, and dysmorphic facial features.19Demczuk S Aurias A DiGeorge syndrome and related syndromes associated with 22qll.2 deletions: a review.Ann Genet. 1995; 38: 59-76PubMed Google Scholar Patients have neonatal tetany due to hypocalcemia, combined immunodeficiency, and manifestations of congenital heart disease. The immunodeficiency is highly variable, depending on the degree of thymic hypoplasia. In more than 90% of patients, the immune defect is mild and can even be transient. Although thymus transplantation can be performed, BMT is still the treatment of choice for the severe types if an HLA-identical donor is available. The hyper-IgM syndrome is characterized by normal to high levels of polyclonal IgM and IgD with decreased or absent IgO, IgA, and IgE. The molecular defect in the most common X-linked form is due to a mutation in the gene encoding CD40 ligand, with defective expression of CD40 ligand on the surface of T cells, and therefore inability of B cells to undergo Ig isotype switching.20DISanto JP Bonnefoy JY Gauchat JF Fischer A Saint Basil G CD40 ligand mutations in x-linked immunodeficiency with hyper-lgM.Nature. 1993; 361: 541-543Crossref PubMed Scopus (646) Google Scholar A few AR forms have been reported in which the molecular is unknown. Patients have infections, autoimmunity, and increased risk of malignant disease. Treatment is supportive, but BMT has been successfully performed. The humoral immunodeficiencies are intrinsic defects of the B lymphocytes. They account for 70% of all PIs and are manifested by decreased Ig production. In Bruton's or Xlinked agammaglobulinemia, B lymphocytes are absent in the periphery and lymphoid organs, although pre-B cells are present in the bone marrow. This disorder is due to a mutation in the gene encoding btk (Bruton's tyrosine kinase), which arrests B-cell development in the pre-B stage.21Rawlings DJ Witte ON Bruton's tyrosine kinase is a key regulator in B-cell development.Immunol Rev. 1994; 138: 105-119Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar Therefore, boys with this disorder do not produce any antibodies and are susceptible to the infections characteristic of humoral immunodeficiencies, but they do not have a higher incidence of malignant disease or autoimmunity than does the general population. By contrast, patients with CVID have decreased levels of all Igs but have circulating B cells. The molecular defect of CVID is unknown, but it is believed to include a heterogeneous group of diseases, some of which affect primarily the B lymphocytes and others that are due to primarily T-cell defects; however, all cause hypogammaglobulinemia.22Cunningham-Rundles C Clinical and immunofogic analyses of 103 patients with common variable immunodeficiency.J Clin Immunol. 1989; 9: 22-33Crossref PubMed Scopus (349) Google Scholar The selective IgA deficiency is the most common PI, affecting 1 in 700 people in the United States.23Strober W Sneller MC IgA deficiency.Ann Allergy. 1991; 66: 363-375PubMed Google Scholar It is usually asymptomatic unless it is associated with an IgG subclass deficiency, but it can manifest with gastrointestinal and respiratory infections. Recognition of this deficiency is important because it can cause anaphylactic reactions in patients treated with IgA-containiog blood products due to the development of anti-IgA antibodies. Therefore, IV-Ig replacement is replacement is not indicated in patients with selective IgA deficiency. The IgG IgO subclass deficiencies usually manifest with recurrent respiratory infections, but they can be associated with autoimmune disorders, allergy, and malignant disease.24Morell A Clinical relevance of IgG subclass deficiencies.Ann Biol Clin (Paris). 1994; 52: 49-52PubMed Google Scholar Some patients with recurrent infections have normal serum Ig levels but are unable to mount a specific antibody response to polysaccharides of encapsulated bacteria.25Ambrosino DM Siber GR Chilmonczyk BA Jernberg JB Finberg RW An immunodeficiency characterized by impaired antibody responses to polysaccharides.N Engl J Med. 1987; 316: 790-793Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar The antipolysaccharide antibody deficiency is diagnosed by measuring the ratio of antibody titers before and after immunization of a patient with a polysaccharide vaccine, such as pneumococcal or meningococcal. This response in children must be interpreted cautiously, however, because the ability to mount a humoral response to polysaccharide antigens matures much later than that to protein antigens, and normal values are not standardized according to age. The hyper-IgE syndrome is characterized by recurrent severe pyogenic infections (mostly staphylococcal abscesses) and dermatitis in children with coarse facial features. Laboratory findings demonstrate extremely high levels of serum IgE, moderate increase of serum IgD levels, eosinophilia, variable defect of cellular and humoral response to previously encountered antigens, and defective neutrophil chemotaxis in one-third of patients. A recent report indicated that a mutation in the gene encoding the a chain of the IL-4 receptor might be implicated in the pathogenesis of this disease.26Hershey GK Friedrich MF Esswein LA Thomas ML Chatila TA The association of atopy with a gain-of-function mutation in the α subunit of the interleukin-4 receptor.N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 1720-1725Crossref PubMed Scopus (688) Google Scholar Treatment of the hyper-IgE syndrome is supportive, with long-term antistaphylococcal staphylococcal antibiotic therapy. The lymphoproliferative syndromes (LPS) are characterized by uncontrolled proliferation B lymphocytes. The X-linked LPS occur in males who are asymptomatic until they are exposed to the Epstein-Barr virus.27Schuster V Seidenspinner S Grimm T Kress W Zielen S Bock M et al.Molecular genetic haplotype segregation studies in three families with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease.Eur J Pediatr. 1994; 153: 432-437Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar The genetic defect of X-linked LPS is unknown. The LPS with autoimmunity is due to a mutation of the gene encoding the surface molecule fas, which is involved in apoptosis. Lymphocytes from patients with LPS do not express fas and therefore proliferate in the lymphoid organs; the outcome is a clinical picture similar to lymphoma, which is associated with various autoimmune disorders. It seems that the fas mutation is necessary but insufficient for the development of the LPS with autoimmunity, and children with this syndrome are heterozygous at the fas locus, as well as at an unknown locus, the product of which is involved in fas-mediated apoptosis.28Rioux-Laucat F Le Deist F Hivroz C Roberts IA Debatin KM Fischer A et al.Mutations in Fas associated with human lymphoproliferative syndrome and autoimmunity.Science. 1995; 268: 1347-1349Crossref PubMed Scopus (1179) Google Scholar Phagocyte defects account for 9% of all PIs. They manifest with recurrent pyogenic and fungal infections. The leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD)-I syndrome is due to a mutation of the gene encoding CD18, the common β chain of the leukocyte adhesion proteins. Phagocytic cells are decreased to the degree that CD18 expression is absent, and they are incapable of migration into areas of infection. Patients with LAD-I have recurrent bacterial infections with no pus formation, and infants have delayed umbilical cord separation. LAD-I phenotype can be moderate to severe, depending on the level of adhesion molecule expression. BMT can be curative in children with the severe phenotype. LAD-II is due to a defect in fucose metabolism that results in the absence of sialyl Lewis x, a selectin ligand, on the surface of neutrophils. Patients with LAD-II have recurrent bacterial infections, pronounced neutrophilia, and mental retardation.29Etiloni A Adhesion molecule deficiencies and their clinical significance.Cell Adhes Commun. 1994; 2: 257-260Crossref PubMed Scopus (33) Google Scholar Patients with the Chediak-Higashi syndrome (CHS) have giant granules in their phagocytes, melanocytes, and other granule-forming cells and suffer from recurrent infections (due to decreased chemotaxis and bacterial killing), partial oculocutaneous albinism, peripheral neuropathy, and a recurrent, aggressive lymphoproliferative phase with diffuse organ infiltration. CHS was recently found to be due to a mutation in L a gene that encodes a protein that is thought to be important in cellular signal response coupling.30Barrat FJ Auloge L Pastural E Lagelouse RD Vilmer E Cant AJ et al.Genetic and physical mapping of the Chediak-Higashi syndrome on chromosome lq42 43.Am J Hum Genet. 1996; 59: 625-632PubMed Google Scholar The treatment of choice of CHS is BMT.38Haddad E Le Deist F Blanche S Benkerrou M Rohrllch P Vilmer E et al.Treatment of Chediak-Higashi syndrome by allogenic bone marrow transplantation: report of 10 cases.Blood. 1995; 85: 332-3333Google Scholar CGD is a defect in phagocyte killing due to the absence of one of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase subunits.31Seger RA Ezekowitz RA Treatment of chronic granulomatous disease.Immunodeficiency. 1994; 5: 113-130PubMed Google Scholar This enzyme is involved in the oxidative burst triggered by phagocytosis, and therefore children with CGD have recurrent bacterial and fungal infections due to the inability of phagocytes to kill microorganisms. The diagnostic test for con is a nitroblue tetrazolium or a chemoluminescence assay. Treatment of COD includes prophylactic antibiotics and interferon (IFN)-y, but the only curative therapy is BMT. MBL deficiency is a common disorder of the innate immunity. MBL is involved in opsonization of bacteria, fungi, and some viruses, as well as in complement activation. Mutation of the MBL gene occurs in 16 to 29% of the population, depending on racial background, and manifests with extremely low levels of serum MBL in homozygous patients and intermediate levels in heterozygous patients.32Turner MW Mannose-binding lectin: the pluripotent molecule of the innate immune system.Immunol Today. 1996; 17: 532-540Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (677) Google Scholar MBL deficiency is associated with recurrent infections, especially during infancy when maternal antibodies have cleared and the newborn's own antibody repertoire has not completely developed. Thus far, MBL replacement is not available, and patients are managed with prophylactic antibiotics. Another newly discovered PI is the deficiency of the IFN -γ receptor, due to a mutation of its gene.33Jouanguy E Altare F Lamhamedi S Revy P Emile J-F Newport M et al.Interferon-γ-receptor deficiency in an infant with fatal bacille Calmette-Guérin infection.N Engl J Med. 1996; 335: 1956-1961Crossref PubMed Scopus (637) Google Scholar Patients with this immunodeficiency have a defect in antigen presentation and have increased susceptibility to atypical mycobacterial infection or disseminated bacillus Calmette-Guérin infection after vaccination, both of which are invariably fatal. Complement deficiencies, defects in all the components of complement, have been described but are extremely rare; they account for 1% of all PIs. Usually, deficiencies of components Cl to C4 clinically manifest during childhood with pyogenic infections and autoimmune disorders (usually lupuslike picture), whereas deficiencies of components C5 to C9 are associated with recurrent Neisseria meningitidis during adulthood.34Colten HR Rosen FS Complement deficiencies.Annu Rev Immunol. 1992; 10: 809-834Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar Some patients with certain complement deficiencies, particularly C2, C4, and C9, can remain completely asymptomatic. Complement replacement therapy is not available, and patients are treated with prophylactic antibiotics and specific immunizations for encapsulated organisms. Improved techniques in BMT have been a breakthrough in the treatment of PIs. These include T-cell depletion of the donor bone marrow, infection prophylaxis, improvement in pretransplantation conditioning regimens, and prevention of graft-versus-host disease. HLA-identical BMT can cure about 90% of patients with SCID, some functional T-cell deficiencies, WAS, LAD, CHS, and CGD.39Fischer A Landais P Friedrich W Gerrttsen B Fasth A Porta F et al.Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) in Europe for primary immunodeficiencies other than severe combined immunodeficiency: a report from the European Group for BMT and the European Group for Immunodeficiency.Blood. 1994; 83: 1149-1154PubMed Google Scholar, 40Stephan JL Vlekova V Le Deist F Blanche S Donadieu J De Saint-Basile G et al.Severe combined immunodeficiency, a retrospective single-center study of clinical presentation and outcome in 117 patients.J Pediatr. 1993; 123: 564-572Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (302) Google Scholar Unfortunately, HLA-identical donors are available in only 25% of cases. BMT of T-cell-depleted bone marrow from HLA-haploidentical donors is associated with a 50 to 70% chance of long-term survival. In order to improve the rate of engraftment, a conditioning regimen is usually given to the recipient before BMT. Lifelong IV-Ig replacement therapy is necessary for patients with the humoral immunodeficiencies. The initial regimen is 300 to 400 mg/kg every 4 weeks. The dose should be adjusted according to the clinical response. Ig trough levels are also helpful in determining the optimal dosage. Concomitant prophylactic antibiotic therapy is used for many PIs. All live vaccines are contraindicated in patients with PIs. In addition, these patients should not be in close contact with persons who have received the attenuated poliovirus vaccine because they can potentially become infected. Other types of therapy include enzyme replacement for ADA deficiency and the use of lymphokines, such as IL-2 for CVID and IL-2 deficiency, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor for reticular dysgenesis, and IFN-yfor CGD and the hyper-IgE syndrome. Gene therapy has been performed for the first time in patients with ADA deficiency, but it is still highly experimental. A better understanding of the molecular defects in the PIs will help in the development of new strategies for gene therapy that may revolutionize the management of these diseases in the future.