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Volcanoes in Old Norse Mythology: Myth and Environment in Early Iceland

2022; University of Illinois Press; Volume: 94; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.5406/21638195.94.2.09

2163-8195

Manu Braithwaite-Westoby,

Historical and Archaeological Studies

Volcanoes are a geological feature unique to certain parts of the world, including Iceland. Many of the cultures that have encountered volcanoes did so in a pre-scientific age and so developed their own, often terrifying, ways of explaining them. This book constructs the framework for a pre-scientific Icelandic theory of volcanism, which is expressed in various phenomena from Old Norse mythology, such as the apocalyptic Ragnarǫk and battles between powerful giants. The author successfully shows that Snorri's Edda is an expression of environment-based narration, and that the making of cosmologies, at least in an Icelandic context but also applicable elsewhere, has a “reflective relationship” with the environment. Despite being a relatively short book, the argument is patiently constructed and lucid throughout.Helpfully for the reader, Nordvig begins the book with some contextualizing literary history. In his view, the Norse myths, in the form we have them, are an expression of Indigenous social memory in the context of a Latinate script-world. He stresses the fundamental transformation the myths would have undergone from an oral form to codification, which naturally prompted a need to explain the authenticity and authority of the newly codified tales. This was an issue that Snorri Sturluson, compiler of the work now known as the Prose Edda, dealt with by distancing the Æsir's rhetoric from himself. Chapter 2 expounds on the Indigenous, pre-scientific theory of volcanism in early Icelandic society. The Old Norse text that receives the greatest treatment and is a constant reference point throughout the book is Hallmundarkviða, preserved in Bergbúa þáttr, only found in manuscripts from 1686 or later but presumed to be from either the tenth or thirteenth century. Nordvig also refers to other largely maritime-based cultures to offer corresponding Indigenous volcanic theories, such as those of the Polynesian Hawaiians and Māori, ancient Greeks, Javanese, First Nations people of Canada, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.The next two chapters apply this theory of volcanism to some of the canonical Old Norse myths. According to Nordvig, Anne Holtsmark was one of the first to point out the inconsistencies in the pagan Norse creation story, particularly regarding the hardening of the Elívágar rivers with hrímr “rime” as they flowed south to Muspellzheimr, a warm region. In Holtsmark's view, Snorri was influenced by the Elucidarius, which was probably known to him, but probably more scholars of the twentieth century now believe that he was driven by Neoplatonist thought, which was then common throughout Europe. The inconsistencies, Nordvig argues, can be resolved by looking deeper into the Old Norse terms used to describe the cosmogony, which lacked the precise vocabulary to describe volcanic events. Chapter 4 examines certain myths about the social order for evidence of volcanism, of which most attention is devoted to the myth of the mead of poetry. He gives a critical evaluation of the current scholarship on the myth and concludes that the version found in Skáldskaparmál differs significantly from those in Hávamál and Háleygjatal, probably because of Snorri's experience of volcanic events in the Icelandic landscape, such as eruptions at Hekla and Reykjaness in the first part of the thirteenth century. He then analyzes Vǫluspá stanzas 47–52, which, in his view, describe certain events from Ragnarǫk that fit within a myth complex that relates to volcanism, and another foundational myth: Þórr's fight with the jǫtunn Hrungnir, which Snorri related in Skáldskaparmál.In the final chapter, which also works as a conclusion, Nordvig discusses some of the guiding principles in Old Norse Myth that made it possible for volcanism to be integrated at all, with reference to contemporary communities that are affected by volcanoes and their responses. The most important of these is the group competitiveness that pervades much of Old Norse myth, particularly that between the Æsir and the jǫtnar. The Æsir, Nordvig argues, represent spiritual entities, whereas the jǫtnar reflect the environment and the harsh realities that go with it, especially in a subarctic region like Iceland. Myths/myth-complexes such as Ragnarǫk and the mead myth explore this tension and, in the case of Ragnarǫk, take it to its logical conclusion in the complete destruction of the earth. However, according to Nordvig, medieval Scandinavians would have been acutely aware of the dangers posed by the environment and the need to assert dominance over others for resources, if only for mere survival. With the emigration to Iceland in the settlement period (870–930), the experience of a totally new (and frightening) environment intensified these patterns, and volcanic events such as loud eruptions and lava flows, expressed as powerful giants, were over time introduced into the myths as social memory of the new threats faced by humans and gods in the constant struggle for survival.Overall, Volcanoes in Old Norse Mythology is a convincing and well-reasoned book. Although Nordvig relies largely on Hallmundarkviða, at least for the early chapters, comparable observations can be made about some of the canonical Old Norse myths, particularly the versions related by Snorri Sturluson. The integration of material from outside Europe is respectfully dealt with and highlights the benefits of conducting comparative studies. The length of the book is both a strength and weakness. It has a lean feel (literally and figuratively) and does not weigh the reader down with interesting yet irrelevant tangents, even in the notes. On the other hand, I think the comparative material might have benefitted from fuller investigation, which a larger study would have permitted. Of course, as with all analyses of this nature, the conclusions must remain hypothetical, but it will no doubt appeal to anyone working on mythology, geomythology, and ecocriticism.Finally, as an Old Norse researcher from New Zealand/Aotearoa of mixed Māori and European descent, I was particularly delighted to see the comparison made with Polynesian mythology, which, in my opinion, is an underutilized resource. From this perspective, I think it could have benefitted from consultation with a more comprehensive overview of Māori mythology, such as A. W. Reed and Roger Hart's Maori Myth: The Supernatural World of the Maori or consultation with local iwi, but this is a minor criticism.