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A New Method for Calculating Vitamin K Content and Determining Appropriate Vitamin K Levels in Foods

2022; RELX Group (Netherlands); Linguagem: Inglês

10.2139/ssrn.4133660

1556-5068

Abed Forouzesh, Fatemeh Forouzesh, Sadegh Samadi Foroushani, Abolfazl Forouzesh,

Vitamin K Research Studies

Calculating the vitamin K content per 100 kcal, 100 g or 100 mL, or the reference amount customarily consumed (RACC) shows the vitamin K content of some foods inappropriately. So, making some food choices based on them to achieve adequate vitamin K intake may increase the risks of some chronic diseases. Calculating the vitamin K content and determining appropriate vitamin K levels (to achieve adequate vitamin K intake) based on U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), and the proposed method were performed in 5,132 food items. Making some food choices based on the FDA and CAC per serving (the serving is derived from the RACC) or CAC per 100 g or 100 mL to achieve adequate vitamin K intake exceeded energy needs, which could lead to overweight or obesity. Making some food choices based on the CAC per 100 kcal or CAC per 100 g or 100 mL to achieve adequate vitamin K intake did not meet vitamin K requirements, which could lead to vitamin K deficiency. Some foods that met vitamin K requirements were not appropriate food choices based on the CAC per 100 g or 100 mL to achieve adequate vitamin K intake. On the basis of the proposed method, calculating the vitamin K content and determining appropriate vitamin K levels in foods are performed by considering RACCs and the energy content of foods. Thus, making food choices based on the proposed method met vitamin K requirements and did not exceed energy needs. About 79.2% of foods contained vitamin K. On the basis of the proposed method, the average (%) of foods containing appropriate vitamin K levels in food groups was 12.08%, of which 5.98% was the average of vitamin K source (good source of vitamin K) foods, and 6.1% was the average of high vitamin K (excellent source of vitamin K) foods. Restaurant foods with 66.13%, baby foods with 55.05%, vegetables and vegetable products with 44.84%, fats and oils with 27.62%, meals, entrees, and side dishes with 23.64%, soups, sauces, and gravies with 15.76%, American Indian/Alaska Native foods with 15%, fruits and fruit juices with 11.2%, and fast foods with 10.31% had the highest averages of foods containing appropriate vitamin K levels. The highest amounts of vitamin K were found in kale, amaranth leaves, collards, mustard greens, dandelion greens, Swiss chard, spinach, turnip greens, lambsquarters, beet greens, garden cress, stinging nettles, broccoli raab, garland chrysanthemum, escarole, sweet potato leaves, chicory greens, Brussels sprouts, radicchio, watercress, leafy tips of bitter gourd, endive, broccoli, egg noodles with spinach, cabbage, drumstick leaves, potherb jute, pokeberry shoots, pumpkin leaves, spinach soufflé, lettuce, pesto sauce, asparagus, taro leaves, arugula, coleslaw, spinach spaghetti, snap beans, parsley, okra, scallions or spring onions, Welsh onions, green kiwifruit, fennel bulb, celery, immature seeds of cowpea, green peas, egg rolls, rhubarb, salad dressing (prepared with soybean oil, canola oil, or olive oil), leeks, edible-podded pea, blackberry juice, chokecherries, carrot juice, vegetable chow mein (without meat or noodles), prunes, celeriac, fava beans in pod, edamame, instant breakfast drink (vitamin K-fortified), rose hips, blueberries, blackberries, cream of asparagus soup, onion rings, cauliflower, fried plantains, pomegranate juice, General Tso's chicken, soybean oil, immature seeds of pigeon pea, lasagna, abalone, protein shake (vitamin K-fortified), nutrition shake (vitamin K-fortified), soybean lecithin, pomegranates, hash browns, soybeans, cream of celery soup, blueberry muffins (not low fat), salmonberries, sweet and sour pork, grapes, chunky vegetable soup, narrow leaf shoots of cattail, artichokes, parsnips, sweet and sour chicken, potato salad, carrots, spaghetti or marinara sauce, vegetable lo mein (without meat), infant or child formula (vitamin K-fortified), nance fruit, basil, pine nuts, mozzarella sticks, red and white currants, immature seeds of hyacinth bean, tartar sauce, margarine with soybean oil, margarine-like spread with soybean oil, cucumber with peel, taco salad, sweet pickle relish, coriander leaves, and cottage cheese with vegetables. Prepared foods contain variable amounts of vitamin K depending on the content of green vegetables and the source and amount of oil used in their preparation. Foods containing appropriate vitamin K levels were not found in five food groups (breakfast cereals; lamb, veal, and game products; pork products; poultry products; sweets) and were few in 11 food groups (beef products; finfish and shellfish products; dairy and egg products; cereal grains and pasta; nut and seed products; sausages and luncheon meats; legumes and legume products; beverages; baked products; spices and herbs; snacks).