Revolution, Race and Citizenship in Press Representations of Indonesians of the Dutch Colonial Army (KNIL) Interned in Australia, 1945–47
2023; Routledge; Volume: 54; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/1031461x.2022.2140813
ISSN1940-5049
AutoresSusie Protschky, Bernard Z. Keo,
Tópico(s)Asian Studies and History
ResumoAbstractThis article examines Australian press attention to the violence that erupted when Indonesian soldiers from the Dutch colonial army (KNIL) were interned in Australia during the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–49). Dutch authorities used their extra-territorial rights in Australia to confine mutinous soldiers in camps as colonial subjects. Australian authorities sought to expel these men as ‘aliens’ while also supporting their citizenship of a nascent Republic. Our research refines historical understanding of the impetus behind the 1947 repatriation of these soldiers. Regional press reports and photographs from the mid-1940s accommodated two emerging, complementary notions of citizenship in their mediation of this situation. One was growing support for Australia’s recognition of the citizenship claims of Indonesians wanting an independent Republic, particularly where those claims were violently denied by Dutch authorities in Australia. The other was a steadfast commitment to national sovereignty and citizenship premised on upholding a ‘white Australia’. AcknowledgementWe thank the two anonymous reviewers, plus Tim Rowse and Fiona Paisley, for their generous suggestions for improvements, and Jane Lydon for her editorship of this special issue.Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.Notes1 Ariel Heryanto, ‘Decolonising Indonesia, Past and Present’, Asian Studies Review 42, no. 4 (2018): 607–25.2 Frank C. Bennett Jr, The Return of the Exiles: Australia’s Repatriation of the Indonesians, 1945–47 (Melbourne: Monash Asia Institute, 2003), 217, 224.3 Margaret George, Australia and the Indonesian Revolution (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1980); Rupert Lockwood, Black Armada: Australia and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence 1942–49 (Sydney: Hale & Iremonger, 1982); Pat Noonan, ‘Merdeka in Mackay: The Indonesian Evacuees and Internees in Mackay, June 1943–February 1946’, Kabar Seberang 24/25 (1995): 239–55; Bennett; Jan Lingard, Refugees and Rebels: Indonesian Exiles in Wartime Australia (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2008); Heather Goodall, Beyond Borders: Indians, Australians and the Indonesian National Revolution (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018). The international scholarship consists of Harry A. Poeze, ‘From Foe to Partner to Foe Again: The Strange Alliance of the Dutch Authorities and Digoel Exiles in Australia, 1943–1945’, Indonesia 94 (2012): 57–84.4 Lockwood focuses only on the major metropolitan presses and the Communist Party of Australia organ, Tribune, of which he was Associate Editor in 1945. Lingard’s and Goodall’s books are more attuned to a wider range of press reporting and photography: Lingard, 124, 126, 129–35; Goodall, 33–6, chs 7 and 10; Fay Anderson and Richard Trembath, Witnesses to War: The History of Australian Conflict Reporting (Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2011), 165–7; Fay Anderson and Sally Young, Shooting the Picture: Press Photography in Australia (Melbourne: The Miegunyah Press, 2016); Fay Anderson, ‘Celebrating the “Anzac Spirit”: The Visual Representation and Censorship of the Australian Soldier’, in The Visual Politics of War, Volume Two: Truth and Lies of Soft Power, eds Ibrahim Saleh and Thomas Knieper (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018), 49–71.5 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 2006), 33–46.6 Ariella Azoulay, The Civil Contract of Photography (New York: Zone Books, 2008), 17, 23–4, 78, 122; Karen Strassler, Refracted Visions: Popular Photography and National Modernity in Java (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 5; Jane Lydon, The Flash of Recognition: Photography and the Emergence of Indigenous Rights (Sydney: NewSouth Books, 2012), 103–8, 114; Susie Protschky, ‘Camera Ethica: Photography, Modernity and the Governed in Late-Colonial Indonesia’, in Photography, Modernity and the Governed in Late-Colonial Indonesia, ed. Susie Protschky (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015), 27–9; Ariella Azoulay, Potential History: Unlearning Imperialism (London: Verso, 2019), 42, 49–51.7 Daniel Gorman, Imperial Citizenship: Empire and the Question of Belonging (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 9, 18–21.8 Azoulay, Civil Contract of Photography, 16–17, 24, 124, 131, 143.9 Partha Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).10 Jon Piccini, Human Rights in Twentieth-Century Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 45.11 Lockwood, 49–52; Bennett, 11–13.12 Lingard, 48.13 ‘Port Hold-up Feared in Dutch Strike’, Courier-Mail, 26 September 1945, 1; ‘Treatment of Indonesians at Casino’, Tweed Daily, 12 October 1945, 2; ‘Many Discharged at Wacol’, Queensland Times, 17 October 1945, 1; ‘Indonesian Troops Discharged’, Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser, 17 October 1945, 3; ‘Indonesians Not Going Back to Internment’, Daily Mercury, 17 October 1945, 2; ‘234 Indonesians on Way Home’, Courier-Mail, 2 May 1946, 2; ‘More Indonesians at Casino Camp’, Northern Star, 3 May 1946, 4; ‘Railroaded to Casino “Belsen”’, Tribune, 3 May 1946, 7.14 Bennett, 80–2, 214.15 Lockwood, 52.16 Lingard, 116.17 Tianna Killoran, ‘Visible Participation: Japanese Migrants in North Queensland, 1880–1941’, History Australia 18, no. 3 (2021): 508–25; Henry Reynolds, North of Capricorn: The Untold Story of Australia’s North (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2003).18 Kate Murphy, Fears and Fantasies: Modernity, Gender, and the Rural-Urban Divide (New York: Peter Lang, 2010), 5, 9, 15–18, 26–7.19 Julia Martínez and Adrian Vickers, ‘Indonesians Overseas – Deep Histories and the View from Below’, Indonesia and the Malay World 40, no. 117 (2012): 111–21; Julia Martínez, ‘Indonesians Challenging White Australia: “Koepangers” in the North Australian Pearl-Shell Industry, 1870s to 1960s’, Indonesia and the Malay World 40, no. 117 (2012): 231–48; Julia Martínez and Adrian Vickers, The Pearl Frontier: Indonesian Labor and Indigenous Encounters in Australia’s Northern Trading Network (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2015).20 Lingard, 11–16.21 Gerke Teitler, ‘The Mixed Company: Fighting Power and Ethnic Relations in the Dutch Colonial Army, 1890–1920’, in Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia, eds Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig (London: Routledge, 2006), 155–6.22 Graham Seal, Inventing Anzac: The Digger and National Mythology (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 2004); Alistair Thomson, Anzac Memories: Living with the Legend, rev. edn (Melbourne: Monash University Press, 2013).23 ‘Indonesian “Diggers”’, Daily Telegraph, 22 March 1945, 11.24 Jeffrey Grey, A Military History of Australia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 189–90; Kevin Foster, ‘Re-Visioning Australia’s Second World War: Race Hatred, Strategic Marginalisation, and the Visual Language of the South West Pacific Campaign’, in Expressions of War in Australia and the Pacific: Language, Trauma, Memory, and Official Discourse, eds Amanda Laugesen and Catherine Fischer (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 127–59.25 Mark Johnston, At the Frontline: Experiences of Australian Soldiers in World War II (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 205.26 Lingard, 12, 33; Poeze, 66.27 Anderson and Young, 88–116, quote at 94.28 See the exceptions in ‘About People’, The Age, 9 August 1945, 2; ‘Dutch Kill Japs’, Army News, 18 January 1945, 3.29 The RAAF and ML-KNIL jointly operated four air force squadrons during WWII, Nos. 18, 19, 119 and 120: Doug Hurst, ‘The Pacific War, 1941–1945’, in The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006, ed. Nonja Peters (Perth: UWA Press, 2006), 92–111, at 105–9; O.G. Ward, De Militaire Luchtvaart van het KNIL in de jaren 1942–1945 (Alphen aan den Rijn: C. Haasbeek, 1986), 68–9, 98; O.G. Ward, De Militaire Luchtvaart van het KNIL in de na-oorlogse jaaren 1945–1950 (Houten: Van Holkema & Warendorf, 1988), 86, 89.30 James O’Connor, ‘They Have Fought Homeless for Two Years’, Argus, 23 December 1944, 2.31 Mercury, 9 April 1945, 4; Border Morning Mail, 11 April 1945, 4; Morning Bulletin, 12 April 1945, 1; ‘RAAF Member of Dutch Bomber Crew’, Daily News, 14 April 1945, 12; Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser, 20 April 1945, 5.32 Lingard, 19–21.33 Indonesian officers of the ML-KNIL were a tiny minority: see Lingard, 244–5.34 This story is repeated in Dutch and Australian primary sources: see Ward, De Militaire Luchtvaart van het KNIL in de Jaren 1942–1945, 74; and Lingard, 18–19.35 Lingard, 50.36 ‘Trouble at Casino’, Tweed Daily, 24 September 1945, 1.37 ‘Armed Dutch Invade Aust. Homes’, Tribune, 26 October 1945, 1; Lockwood, 89.38 Authors’ italics (quote). Reporter L. Jones of the Northern Star quoted in ‘Java Evacuees Not Welcome’, Daily Telegraph, 22 September 1945, 4; ‘Not Welcome’, Warwick Daily News, 26 September 1945, 4; ‘Should Be Welcome’, Herald, 28 September 1945, 11.39 Ann Laura Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra’s Plantation Belt, 1870–1979, 2nd edn (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Vincent J.H. Houben and J. Thomas Lindblad, eds, Coolie Labour in Colonial Indonesia: A Study of Labour Relations in the Outer Islands, c. 1900–1940 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1999); Jan Breman, Mobilizing Labour for the Global Coffee Market: Profits from an Unfree Work Regime in Colonial Java (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015).40 Emmanuel Kreike, ‘Genocide in the Kampongs? Dutch Nineteenth Century Colonial Warfare in Aceh, Sumatra’, in Colonial Counterinsurgency and Mass Violence: The Dutch Empire in Indonesia, eds Bart Luttikhuis and A. Dirk Moses (London: Routledge, 2014), 48–50.41 Tom Hoogervorst and Henk Schulte Nordholt, ‘Urban Middle Classes in Colonial Java (1900–1942): Images and Language’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 173, no. 4 (2017): 442–74.42 Susie Protschky, ‘Race, Class and Gender: Debates over the Character of Social Hierarchies in the Netherlands Indies, circa 1600–1942’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 167, no. 4 (2011): 543–56.43 John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007).44 Phil Griffiths, ‘The Coolie Labour Crisis in Colonial Queensland’, Labour History 113 (2017): 53–78.45 Tony Ohlsson, ‘The Origins of a White Australia: The Coolie Question, 1837–1843’, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 97, no. 2 (2010): 209–13.46 Douglas Cole, ‘“The Crimson Thread of Kinship”: Ethnic Ideas in Australia, 1870–1914’, Australian Historical Studies 14, no. 56 (1971): 511–25; Jane Carey and Claire McLisky, eds, Creating White Australia (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 2009); James Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera: The Story of Australian Immigration (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); I.H. London, Non-White Immigration and the ‘White Australia’ Policy (New York: New York University Press, 1970); Gwenda Tavan, The Long Slow Death of White Australia (Melbourne: Scribe Publications, 2005).47 Lingard, 111–16; ‘Java Evacuees Not Welcome’; ‘Insults’, Daily Telegraph, 27 September 1945, 25; ‘Should Be Welcome’; ‘The Indonesian’, Herald, 10 October 1945, 8.48 ‘Javanese Strike Forcibly Broken’, Telegraph, 26 October 1945, 1; ‘WAAAF Threat to Strike’, Sun, 26 October 1945, 5; ‘WAAAF’s Say Javanese Manhandled’, Herald, 26 October 1945, 3; ‘R.A.A.F. in Bundaberg’, Cairns Post, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘Bundaberg Air Base’, West Australian, 27 October 1945, 7; ‘Javanese Arrested at Airfield’, Advertiser, 27 October 1945, 9; ‘Striking Javanese in Clash’, Courier-Mail, 27 October 1945, 3; ‘RAAF Men on Strike Against Dutch at Bundaberg Drome’, Morning Bulletin, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘RAAF Personnel Refuse to Work with Dutch’, Queensland Times, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘B’berg Javanese in Melee’, Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser, 27 October 1945, 5; ‘RAAF Men Strike at Bundaberg’, Daily Mercury, 27 October 1945, 2; ‘R.A.A.F. Strike’, Warwick Daily News, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘RAAF Men at Bundaberg Refuse to Work for Dutch’, Tweed Daily, 27 October 1945, 2; ‘Javanese on Strike’, The Age, 27 October 1945, 3; ‘RAAF Men Refuse to Work for Dutch after Shootings’, Army News, 29 October 1945, 4.49 M. van Haselen, 25 Jaar Militaire Luchtvaart in Nederlandsch-Indië (Batavia: Koninklijke Drikkerij, 1939).50 ‘Javanese Strike Forcibly Broken’; ‘R.A.A.F. in Bundaberg’; ‘Bundaberg Air Base’.51 ‘Bundaberg Trouble’, Cairns Post, 30 October 1945, 5; ‘RAAF Men Say Dutch Beat Up Natives’, Daily News, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘R.A.A.F. Men Resent Dutch MP’s “Violence”’, Sun, 27 October 1945, 3; ‘RAAF Investigating Bundaberg Trouble’, Herald, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘Alleged Bashing of Indonesians’, Advocate, 29 October 1945, 5.52 ‘WAAAF Threat to Strike’; ‘WAAAF’s Say Javanese Manhandled’, 3; ‘RAAF Men on Strike Against Dutch at Bundaberg Drome’; ‘R.A.A.F. Refused to Work with Dutch’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 27 October 1945, 1; ‘Army Service Ended, Claim Indonesians’, Daily Mercury, 27 October 1945, 2; ‘R.A.A.F. Strike’; ‘RAAF Men at Bundaberg Refuse to Work for Dutch’; ‘Probe Ordered into Bundaberg Incident’, Truth, 28 October 1945, 22. See also ‘RAAF Men Ignore Dutch Officers’, Sun, 28 October 1945, 1.53 ‘Bundaberg Trouble’; ‘Bundaberg Air Base’, West Australian, 30 October 1945, 5; ‘Air Force at Bundaberg Resent Dutch’, Courier-Mail, 30 October 1945, 1; ‘Arrogance by Dutch Officers at Bundaberg ’Drome’, Morning Bulletin, 30 October 1945, 4; ‘R.A.A.F. Resented Dutch Arrogance’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 30 October 1945, 1; ‘Dutch Arrogance’, Northern Miner, 30 October 1945, 1; ‘Dutch Attitude Resented by RAAF Personnel’, Daily Mercury, 30 October 1945, 1; ‘Cause of Trouble at Bundaberg’, Tweed Daily, 30 October 1945, 1. Lingard mentions the Bundaberg incident, but not the RAAF serviceman’s statement or its wide reporting: 183–4.54 Agnieszka Sobocinska, ‘“The Language of Scars”: Australian Prisoners of War and the Colonial Order’, History Australia 7, no. 3 (2010): 58.1–58.19; Christina Twomey, ‘Emaciation or Emasculation: Photographic Images, White Masculinity and Captivity by the Japanese in World War Two’, Journal of Men’s Studies 15, no. 3 (2007): 295–310.55 ‘Dutch Denial’, Cairns Post, 29 October 1945, 3; ‘Javanese Inquiry by RAAF’, Courier-Mail, 29 October 1945, 1.56 ‘Air Minister Worried’, Border Morning Mail, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘Communist Tale of Bashing at B’berg Given Lie Direct’, Daily Mercury, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘Denies Guns Turned on Indonesians’, Northern Star, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘R.A.A.F. Resented Dutch Arrogance’; ‘Airmen Allege “Dutch Arrogance”’, Queensland Times, 30 October 1945, 1.57 ‘No Javanese Shot or Battered at Bundaberg ’Drome’, Morning Bulletin, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘R.A.A.F. Bundaberg Strike Denied’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘Denies Guns Turned on Indonesians’; ‘Reports of Bundaberg Incidents Grossly Exaggerated’, Queensland Times, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘Communist Tale of Bashing at B’berg Given Lie Direct’; ‘Bundaberg Trouble’; ‘Javanese Inquiry by RAAF’; ‘No Traces of Bashings on Javanese’, Courier-Mail, 31 October 1945, 1; ‘Javanese Sent Back to B’berg’, Telegraph, 29 October 1945, 1; ‘Dutch Official Denies Bundaberg Story’, Army News, 30 October 1945, 1.58 ‘R.A.A.F. Men Still Refuse to Work for Dutch’, Daily Telegraph, 28 October 1945, 4; ‘R.A.A.F. Inquiry on “Bashing” Charge’, Mail, 27 October 1945, 1.59 ‘Says Indonesians “Were Not Deliberately Bashed”’, Telegraph, 27 October 1945, 3.60 ‘RAAF Men Ignore Dutch Officers’.61 ‘Strike Wave Spreads to Interned Indonesians’, Canberra Times, 23 October 1945, 2; ‘Javanese Strike Forcibly Broken’; ‘Javanese in Aust. 1250’, Courier-Mail, 27 October 1945, 3.62 ‘Indonesians Refuse Duty’, Sydney Morning Herald, 23 October 1945, 3.63 ‘Javanese Sent Back to B’berg’, Telegraph, 29 October 1945, 1.64 ‘Inquiry Sought into Hanging’, Tweed Daily, 14 September 1946, 1; ‘Guards Shoot Prisoner’, Northern Miner, 14 September 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Shot’, Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser, 14 September 1946, 5; ‘More Trouble at Dutch Camp in Casino’, Morning Bulletin, 14 September 1946, 6; ‘Prisoners May Have Lynched Man’, Mercury, 14 September 1946, 8.65 ‘WIU Decision on the Casino Camp Shooting’, Barrier Miner, 18 September 1946, 3; ‘Demand for “Little Belsen” Probe Now’, Tribune, 20 September 1946, 3; ‘Shooting of Indonesians’, Kalgoorlie Miner, 20 September 1946, 4; ‘Casino Citizens Demand Closing of “Little Belsen”’, Tribune, 4 October 1946, 7; ‘Close “Little Belsen” say students’, Worker's Star, 25 October 1946, 5. The Tribune began the analogy as early as September 1945, referring to the ‘Gestapo-like attitude of the Dutch imperialists’ at Wacol: ‘Worker Asked Rise Gaoled’, Tribune, 11 September 1945, 6.66 Lingard, 126, 129.67 ‘Dutch Camp at Casino’, Northern Star, 17 September 1946, 6; ‘Little Belsen’, South Coast Times and Wollongong Argus, 11 October 1946, 6; ‘Demand Closure of Casino Hell Camp’, Northern Standard, 27 September 1946, 5.68 Most papers used ‘Tardji’, but the Daily Examiner named him as Private T. Arji, 13 September 1946, 1.69 ‘Indonesian Shot in Camp Riot’, Daily Telegraph, 18 April 1946, 1; ‘Shot Dead by Guard’, West Wyalong Advocate, 18 April 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians Shot Dead’, Wellington Times, 18 April 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Shot Dead at Casino Camp’, Northern Star, 18 April 1946, 4; ‘Indonesian Killed at Casino Camp’, Tweed Daily, 18 April 1946, 2; ‘Indonesian Shot by Dutch Guard’, Glen Innes Examiner, 18 April 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Shot at Casino’, North Western Courier, 18 April 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Shot Dead at Casino Camp’, Kyogle Examiner, 19 April 1946, 1; ‘Disturbance at Dutch Camp’, Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners’ Advocate, 19 April 1946, 8; ‘Coroner Asks for Report’, Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners’ Advocate, 20 April 1946, 6.70 ‘North Coast News’, Tweed Daily, 27 April 1946, 2; ‘Casino Expresses View on Dutch Hell-Camp’, Tribune, 30 April 1946, 3; ‘Dutch to Vacate Camp Columbia’, Courier-Mail, 20 April 1946, 1; ‘Coroner Asks for Report’; ‘Casino Camp’, Tweed Daily, 25 April 1946, 1; ‘Probe Dutch “Belsen” Murder at Casino’, Tribune, 26 April 1946, 1. On the Commonwealth Investigation Branch inquiry, and its inconclusive findings, see Lingard, 130.71 ‘700 Indonesians to Go Home’, Herald, 8 February 1946, 6; ‘Indonesian Repatriation Procedure’, Telegraph, 8 February 1946, 3; ‘Indonesians Say All Must Return’, Telegraph, 9 February 1946, 3; ‘Back to NEI’, West Australian, 20 February 1946, 4.72 ‘Man Found Hanged at NEI Camp’, Telegraph, 11 September 1946, 1.73 ‘Murder of Indonesian’, The Age, 12 September 1946, 3; ‘Army Camp Death’, West Australian, 12 September 1946, 5; ‘Indonesian Prisoner’s Death’, Tweed Daily, 12 September 1946, 2; ‘Political Vengeance in Dutch Compound Murder’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 12 September 1946, 1; ‘Man Found Hanging after Stabbing in Camp at Casino’, Northern Star, 12 September 1946, 4; ‘Camp Death Mystery’, Sydney Morning Herald, 12 September 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Found Hanged in NSW Camp’, Argus, 12 September 1946, 3; ‘Alleged Lynching of Javanese’, Barrier Daily Truth, 12 September 1946, 1; ‘Detention Camp Murder’, Cairns Post, 12 September 1946, 1; ‘Javanese Lynched at Casino Camp’, Canberra Times, 12 September 1946, 2; ‘Reported Lynching of NEI Soldier in NSW Camp’, Daily Advertiser, 12 September 1946, 2; ‘Suspect Found Hanged’, Examiner, 12 September 1946, 5; ‘Dutch Camp Death’, Kalgoorlie Miner, 12 September 1946, 4; ‘Indonesian Killed in Detention Camp’, Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser, 12 September 1946, 5; ‘Indonesian Murdered in Camp at Casino’, Morning Bulletin, 12 September 1946; ‘Alleged Lynching Incident at Camp’, National Advocate, 12 September 1946, 2; ‘Indonesian Murdered at Casino Camp’, Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners’ Advocate, 12 September 1946, 1.74 Lingard, 114, 139.75 ‘Indonesian Killed in NSW Camp’, Adelaide News, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Trouble in Dutch Camp’, Barrier Daily Truth, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Casino Residents Have Fears’, Singleton Argus, 13 September 1946, 4. But see also, ‘Indonesian Shot Dead’, The Age, 13 September 1946, 3; ‘Indonesian Camp Causes Concern’, Barrier Miner, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Prisoner Shot at Dutch Camp Near Casino’, Northern Champion, 14 September 1946, 2.76 ‘Another Indonesian Killed’, Tweed Daily, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Casino Camp Guard Shoots Three’, Northern Star, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Dutch Shoot More Indonesians at Casino’, Northern Standard, 13 September 1946, 1.77 ‘Man Shot by Guard at Casino Camp’, Daily Examiner, 13 September 1946, 1.78 ‘Shot Prisoner Had 13 Wounds’, Daily News, 13 September 1946, 8; ‘People Fear Riot in Dutch Compound: Want Camp Closed’, Newcastle Sun, 13 September 1946, 3; ‘Fears of Riot in Dutch Compound’, Sun, 13 September 1946, 3; ‘Demand for “Little Belsen” Probe Now’; ‘Dutch Hell-Camp Slaying Angers Unions’, The Workers Star, 20 September 1946, 2.79 Ariella Azoulay, ‘The Execution Portrait’, in Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis, eds Geoffrey Batchen, Mick Gidley, Nancy K. Miller and Jay Prosser (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 252.80 Paul Bijl, Emerging Memory: Photographs of Colonial Atrocity in Dutch Cultural Remembrance (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015); Sean Willcock, ‘Aesthetic Bodies: Posing on Sites of Violence in India, 1857–1900’, History of Photography 39, no. 2 (2015): 142–59; Amandeep Singh Madra, Parmjit Singh and Kim Wagner, Eyewitness at Amritsar: A Visual History of the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (London: Kashi House, 2019).81 ‘Dutch Camp at Casino’, Northern Star, 17 September 1946; ‘Little Belsen’; ‘Demand Closure of Casino Hell Camp’; ‘Inquiry Sought into Hanging’; ‘Guards Shoot Prisoner’; ‘Indonesian Shot’; ‘More Trouble at Dutch Camp in Casino’; ‘Prisoners May Have Lynched Man’.82 Fay Anderson, ‘“They are killing all of us Jews”: Australian Press Memory of the Holocaust’, in Genocide, Memory and History, ed. Karen Auerbach (Melbourne: Monash University Publishing, 2015), 65–85.83 Anderson and Trembath, 121; Anderson, ‘“They are killing all of us Jews”’, 76, 78.84 ‘Dutch Camp at Casino’. ‘Dr Evatt’ refers to H.V. Evatt (1894–1965), Deputy Leader of the Labor Party under Chifley, who went on to be President of the United Nations General Assembly, 1948–49.85 Bennett, 213.86 The memory clearly inflects Nonja Peters, ‘Evacuations into Australia from the Netherlands East Indies, 1942–1948’, in The Dutch Down Under 1606–2006, ed. Nonja Peters (Perth: UWA Press, 2006), 113, 128. Quote from Bart Luttikhuis and A. Dirk Moses, ‘Introduction’, in Colonial Counterinsurgency and Mass Violence: The Dutch Empire in Indonesia, eds Bart Luttikhuis and A. Dirk Moses (London: Routledge, 2014), 17.87 Anderson, ‘“They are killing all of us Jews”’, 76, 78.88 A. Dirk Moses, The Problem of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 19, 21, 29, 37, 251–5, 277–331.89 Sobocinska, 58.7–58.19; Twomey, 295–310.90 ‘Federal Security Police Sent to Dutch Prison Camp’, Daily Telegraph, 15 September 1946, 4.91 ‘Casino Residents Fear Prison Camp Outbreak’, Cootamundra Herald, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Indonesian Camp Causes Concern’, 1; ‘Inquiry Sought into Hanging’; ‘Dutch Camp Protest’, National Advocate, 14 September 1946, 1.92 ‘No Ships to Move Men’, Daily Telegraph, 14 September 1946, 6; ‘Dutch Say Ship Ban Keeps Men at Casino Camp’, Sun, 15 September 1946, 7; ‘Dutch Had to Stay at Casino’, Sunday Mail, 15 September 1946, 3.93 ‘Political Vengeance in Dutch Compound Murder’, 1; ‘Indonesian Killed in Detention Camp’; ‘Casino Residents Have Fears’, 4; ‘Indonesian Camp Causes Concern’; ‘Casino Worried Over Indonesians’, Evening Advocate, 13 September 1946, 8; ‘Casino Fears Indonesian Riots’, Lithgow Mercury, 13 September 1946, 1; ‘Casino People Fear Riot in Dutch Compound’, Newcastle Sun, 13 September 1946, 3; ‘People Shot at Dutch Camp Near Casino’, Northern Champion, 14 September 1946, 2; ‘Trouble at Dutch Army Camp’, Warwick Daily News, 14 September 1946, 3; ‘Guards Shoot Prisoner’.94 ‘Demand for “Little Belsen” Probe Now’; ‘Casino Citizens Demand Closing of “Little Belsen”’; Lingard, 136.95 Bennett, 179, 219–21.96 ‘227 Indonesians Leave Casino Compound’, Tweed Daily, 24 October 1946, 2; ‘Indonesians to Be Repatriated’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 24 October 1946, 5; ‘227 NEI Aliens Taken to Brisbane’, Queensland Times, 24 October 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians Freed from Detention Camps’, Cairns Post, 24 October 1946, 3; ‘Sentences Served’, Daily Mercury, 24 October 1946, 2; ‘Indonesians Transferred to Brisbane’, Morning Bulletin, 24 October 1946, 1.97 Australian Dictionary of Biography, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/pie-arthur-bruce-11392 (accessed 6 December 2021).98 ‘Chermside Camp’, Warwick Daily News, 16 November 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians Training Here’, Queensland Times, 16 November 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians Training Here as Guerrillas’, Townsville Daily Bulletin, 16 November 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians in Camp at Chermside’, Cairns Post, 16 November 1946, 5; ‘Training in Aust. to Fight Dutch’, Northern Star, 16 November 1946, 5; ‘Indonesians in Qld. Training for Guerrilla War’, Daily Mercury, 16 November 1946, 6; ‘Pie States Indonesians in Aust. Training to Meet Dutch’, Maryborough Chronicle, 16 November 1946, 1; ‘Indonesians Trained in Guerrilla Warfare at Chermside Camp’, Morning Bulletin, 16 November 1946, 1.99 ‘Chermside Camp’, Warwick Daily News, 18 November 1946, 5. Calwell had the last word, describing Pie’s allegation as ‘phantasmagoric’ and demanding he apologise: ‘Minister Denies Guerrilla Report’, Herald, 19 November 1946, 6.100 Lingard, 235–6.101 Lockwood, 148, 268, 278–9; Bennett, 242; Lingard, 213. Goodall is the exception: 334–5.102 Lockwood, 200–1; Lingard, 213.103 Karen Strassler, Demanding Images: Democracy, Mediation, and the Image-Event in Indonesia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2020), 14, 62, 243.104 Azoulay, Civil Contract of Photography, 17, 143.105 Ibid., 121.Additional informationFundingThe research for this article was funded by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT200100597) and Deakin University.
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