The representation of women in ZANU and ZAPU propaganda during the Zimbabwe War of Liberation
2023; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 33; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09612025.2023.2242640
ISSN1747-583X
Autores Tópico(s)African history and culture studies
ResumoABSTRACTThis article considers the ways in which women were presented in the propaganda of ZANU and ZAPU during the conflict in Rhodesia. In doing this it seeks to build upon existing studies of women, however with a greater focus upon the media output of the nationalist organisations than has previously been the case. In doing so, it shows how ZANU and ZAPU sought to use the experiences of women for their own purposes, as well as how they developed a particular form of public feminist thought, rooted outside that in the West. It also highlights the tensions which existed within the propaganda and ideology of the two groups, whereby women had to be both powerless victims and at the same time significant political and military agents. In doing this it shows how it was difficult for them to create a single narrative of women's liberation during the Zimbabwe Liberation War. AcknowledgementsThe author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 'Through Revolt', Zimbabwe News 3, no. 14 (1968): 1–2, 2.2 S. Muzenda, 'Manpower Survey – Another Milestone in Zimbabwe's Onward March to Freedom', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 6 (1978): 10–12, 11.3 C. Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives (London: Pluto Press, 1983). See also: M. Davies, ed., Third World, Second Sex: Women's Struggles and National Liberation: Third World Women Speak Out (London: Zed Books, 1983).4 L. Sjoberg, Gender, War, and Conflict (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2014).5 E. Bridger, Young Women Against Apartheid: Gender, Youth and South Africa's Liberation Struggle (Martlesham: Boydell & Brewer, 2021); G. Chuku and S.U. Aham-Okoro, eds, Women and the Nigeria-Biafra War (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2020); N. McMaster, Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the 'Emancipation' of Muslim Women, 1954–62 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992); M. Turshen, 'Algerian Women in the Liberation Struggle and Civil War: From Active Participants to Passive Victims', Social Research 69, no. 3 (2002): 889–911; S. Meer, 'Freedom for Women: Mainstreaming Gender in the South African Liberation Struggle and Beyond', Gender & Development 13, no. 2 (2005): 36–45; M. Turshen and C. Twagiramariya, What Women Do in Wartime: Gender and Conflict in Africa (London: Zed Books, 1998). See also: G. Holmes, Women and War in Rwanda: Gender, Media, and the Representation of Genocide (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014).6 A.S. Mlambo, A History of Zimbabwe (Cambridge: CUP, 2014), 145–8, chap.7.7 J.K. Cilliers, Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015 [1985]), 90. See also figure 3.1 at 91 (map); H.I. Schmidt, Colonialism and Violence in Zimbabwe: A History of Suffering (Woodbridge: James Currey, 2013), 211.8 M. Kesby, 'Arenas for Control, Terrains for Gender Reconstruction: Guerrilla Struggle and Counter-Insurgency Warfare in Zimbabwe, 1972–1980', Journal of Southern African Studies 22, no. 4 (1996): 561–84; K.B. Khan, 'Girls of War and Echoes of Liberation: Engaging Female Voices Through Chimurenga Songs About Zimbabwe's Armed Struggle', Muziki: Journal of Music Research in Africa 15, no. 1 (2018): 58–67; K. Law, Gendering the Settler State: White Women, Race, Liberalism and Empire in Rhodesia, 1950–1980 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015); T. Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls: Women in the Zimbabwean Liberation Struggle (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004); T. Lyons, 'Guerrilla Girls and Women in the Zimbabwean National Liberation Struggle', in Women in African Colonial Histories, ed. J. Allman, S. Geiger and N. Musisi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 305–26; J. Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? Women and ZANLA in Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle (Harare: Weaver Press, 2000); S. Ranchod-Nilsson, 'Gender Politics and National Liberation: Women's Participation in the Liberation of Zimbabwe' (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1992); S. Ranchod-Nilsson, '"This, Too, is a Way of Fighting": Rural Women's Participation in Zimbabwe's Liberation War', in Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World, ed. M. Tétreault (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 62–88; L. Stott, Women and the Armed Struggle for Independence in Zimbabwe (1964–1979) (Edinburgh: Centre for African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 1989). See also: M. Israel, T. Lyons and C. Mason, 'Women, Resistance and Africa: Armed Struggles in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Eritrea', Humanity & Society 26, no. 3 (2002): 196–213; E.E. Kombo, 'Women in National Liberation Wars in the Settler Colonies of Kenya and Zimbabwe: Pathways to Political Empowerment' (MA diss., University of York, 2012); S. Ranchod-Nilsson, 'Gender Politics and the Pendulum of Political and Social Transformation in Zimbabwe', Journal of Southern African Studies 32, no. 1 (2006): 49–67.9 A.K.H. Weinrich, Women and Racial Discrimination in Rhodesia ([Paris]: UNESCO, [1979]).10 Of course, they do not ignore propaganda entirely. For example, Tanya Lyons discusses the presentation of female victims of the Rhodesians' cross-border raids, and issues of 'glorification': Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls, 123–8; chap.7. See also Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War: Peasant Voices (Cambridge: CUP, 1992), 191–6 on 'glorification'. Josephine Nhongo-Simbanegavi also discusses ZANU ideology and propaganda as background to her study: Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? 1–9.11 e.g. S.R. Davis, 'The African National Congress, its Radio, its Allies and Exile', Journal of Southern African Studies 35, no. 2 (2009): 349–73; R. Gray, Cinemas of the Mozambican Revolution: Anti-Colonialism, Independence and Internationalism in Filmmaking, 1968–1991 (Martlesham: James Currey, 2020); R. Heinze, ''Men Between': The Role of Zambian Broadcasters in Decolonisation', Journal of Southern African Studies 40, no. 3 (2014): 623–40; M.A. Innes, 'Review Article: Reading Guerrilla Radio in Wartime Liberia', Small Wars & Insurgencies 16, no. 2 (2005): 241–51; M.J. Moorman, Powerful Frequencies: Radio, State Power, and the Cold War in Angola, 1931–2002 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2019); A.G. Woldearegay, 'Fighting and Broadcasting: A History of Ethiopia's Radio Voice of Tigray People's Liberation Front', Communication 45, no. 4 (2019): 64–96.12 M. Hadjiathanasiou, Propaganda and the Cyprus Revolt: Rebellion, Counter-Insurgency and the Media, 1955–59 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2020); L. Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1999). Early texts on Rhodesia are: J. Frederikse, None But Ourselves: Masses vs. Media in the Making of Zimbabwe (London: Penguin, 1984); B. Palling, 'Rhodesia's Propaganda War', Index on Censorship 8, no. 1 (1979): 45–9. For more recent research, see: J. Brownell, 'Out of Time: Global Settlerism, Nostalgia, and the Selling of the Rhodesian Rebellion Overseas', Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 4 (2017): 805–24; P. Hayes, 'Zenzo Nkobi, ZAPU Photographer: Exile, Visibility and the Anteroom of War in Zambia, 1977–1980', Journal of Southern African Studies 46, no. 5 (2020): 941–64; B. Marmon, 'Rise and Demise of the Zimbabwe Times: ZAPU's and Lonrho's Covert(ish) Nationalist Daily in Rhodesia', Media History (forthcoming, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1080/13688804.2022.2099367 (accessed July 21, 2023); S.P. Lekgoathi, T. Moloi and A.R. Saíde, eds, Guerrilla Radios in Southern Africa: Broadcasters, Technology, Propaganda Wars, and the Armed Struggle (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2020); E. Msindo, '"Winning Hearts and Minds": Crisis and Propaganda in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1962–1970', Journal of Southern African Studies 35, no. 3 (2009): 663–81; E. Ndawana and A. Zevure, 'Ignore Culture in Counterinsurgency at Your Peril: Rhodesian Propaganda Warfare During the Zimbabwe War of Liberation in Chilonga Chiredzi South East of Zimbabwe', Small Wars & Insurgencies 30, no. 2 (2019): 335–66; E. Ndlovu, 'Radio as a Recruiting Medium in Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle', Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture 12, no. 2 (2017): 52–8; J.J. Zaffiro, Media and Democracy in Zimbabwe, 1931–2002 (Colorado Springs, CO: International Academic Publishers, 2002).13 K. Law, ''We Wanted to be Free as a Nation, and We Wanted to be Free as Women': Decolonisation, Nationalism and Women's Liberation in Zimbabwe, 1979–85', Gender & History 33, no. 1 (2021): 249–68, 251; S.J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 1. See also: Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, chaps 3, 9; C.J. Riphenburg, 'Women's Status and Cultural Expression: Changing Gender Relations and Structural Adjustment in Zimbabwe', Africa Today 44, no. 1 (1997): 33–49.14 Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War, 191–6; Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls, 123–8.15 'ZAPU Delegation's Speech to the People's Republic to the Congo's Workers' Party Ccongres [sic]', Zimbabwe Review 4, no. 2 (1975): 6.16 Jane Ngwenya's time as a radio host is explored in M. Mushonga, L. Hazvineyi and M. Nyakudya, 'Reminiscences of Zimbabwe's War Radio Broadcasters', in Guerrilla Radios in Southern Africa, ed. Lekgoathi, Moloi & Saíde, 121–35.17 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 45–8.18 E. M. Sibanda, The Zimbabwe African People's Union 1961–87: A Political History of Insurgency in Southern Rhodesia (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005), 71–2.19 Ibid., 175.20 Cilliers, Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia, chap.7; On Nyadzonya in particular, see: N.K. Powell, 'The UNHCR and Zimbabwean Refugees in Mozambique, 1975–80', Refugee Survey Quarterly 32, no. 4 (2013): 41–65, 55.21 'Maputo Reports ZIPA Clashes With Rhodesia Troops', Maputo, Voice of Zimbabwe, 10 May 1978, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) Daily Report - Sub-Saharan Africa, 12 May 1978, FBIS-SSA-78-093, E5.22 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 125; 'Carnage Against Defenceless Girls at Mkushi', Zimbabwe People's Voice, 28 October 1978, 6–7, 7.23 'Carnage Against Defenceless Girls at Mkushi', 7.24 ''Zimbabwe Women's Union Officials Interviewed', reprint from Zimbabwe People's Voice, 10 March 1979, 4+10, reproduced in Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa No.2083 (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1979), 63–5, 64. On the controversy surrounding the Mkushi attack, see: Lyons, 'Guerrilla Girls and Women in the Zimbabwean National Liberation Struggle', 213.25 Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls, 127–8.26 'Maputo Carries Patriotic Front Leaders' Message to Owen', Maputo, Voice of Zimbabwe, 8 December 1977, FBIS Daily Report - Sub-Saharan Africa, 9 December 1977, FBIS-SSA-77-237, E1-E3, E2. See also Nkomo's similar comments after Mkushi: 'ZAPU Hits Western Leaders' reprint from Zimbabwe People's Voice, 17 February 1979, 1, reproduced in Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa No.2086 (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1979), 76–8, 77.27 'Our Unknown Heroes', Zimbabwe News 9, no. 4 (1977): 20.28 'The Cabaret Slave Girls', Zimbabwe Review, 14 July 1973, 1–3, 1. The thirst of mercenaries for prostitutes was again asserted by the ZPR in 1978: G. Horne, Through the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War Against Zimbabwe, 1965–1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 28.29 'ZAPU Forces Hit Hard', Zimbabwe Review, 15 December 1973, 1–2, 2.30 'Smith's Bloody Terror Rules Rhodesia', Zimbabwe Review 6, no. 3/4 (1977): 14–20, 17. See also here for further examples: 'May in Zimbabwe (As Reported by the Voice of Zimbabwe)', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 3 (1978): 13–15, 14; 'Rhodesia's Concentration Camps', Zimbabwe Bulletin (September-October 1977), 1–3, 3. Rape is discussed in the secondary literature here: Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 260–8. There was independent contemporary evidence of rape in the 'protected villages': Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? 6; A.K.H. Weinrich, 'Strategic Resettlement in Rhodesia', Journal of Southern African Studies 3, no. 2 (1977): 207–29.31 T. Ropa, 'Women Have Total Involvement in the Struggle', Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution: Writings and Documents from ZANU and the ZANU Women's League (New York: National Campaign in Solidarity with ZANU Women's League, 1980?), 20–1, 20.32 M. Munochiveyi, 'Suffering and Protest in Rhodesian Prisons During the Zimbabwean Liberation Struggle', Journal of Southern African Studies 45, no. 1 (2015): 47–61; M. Munochiveyi, 'The Political Lives of Rhodesian Detainees During Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle', International Journal of African Historical Studies 46, no. 2 (2016): 283–304.33 'Rhodesia's Concentration Camps', 1–3.34 'Nkomo's Interview With the TV of the GDR', Zimbabwe Review 6, no. 3/4 (1977): 4–7, 6.35 'ZANU Issues Communique on Successes in First Five Months of Year', Maputo, Voice of Zimbabwe, 30 July 1979, FBIS Daily Report - Sub-Saharan Africa, 1 August 1979, FBIS-SSA-79-149, E2.36 On this, see: H. Pattenden, 'Nazism, Fascism, and Genocide as Themes in ZANU and ZAPU Propaganda During the War Against Rhodesia, 1965–1980', Holocaust and Genocide Studies (forthcoming).37 'Zimbabwe: The Land of Police Torture', Zimbabwe Review 4, no. 4 (1964): 6–8, 7.38 'Zimbabwe African Women's Union: We Women Play An Active Role', Zimbabwe Review (October 1973), 6–7, 6; '"Women Are Part and Parcel of the Revolution and Part and Parcel of Zimbabwe": An Interview With Teurai Ropa Nhongo, Minister of Youth, Sports and Recreation in the Republic of Zimbabwe', Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 27–31, 28; 'Civilians Harassed', summary of an article in Zimbabwe People's Voice, January 13, 1979, 4, reproduced in Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa No.2063 (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1979), 101.39 T. Ushe, 'Girls' Role in the Struggle', Zimbabwe Review 6, no. 10 (1977): 11.40 Ibid., 11. These women were: Jane Ngwenya, Mai Makwavarara, Ruth Chinamano, and 'Mrs [I.?] Dhlomo'.41 'Zimbabwe Women's Union Officials Interviewed', 65.42 'ZANU Address to Afro Shirazi Youth League: Third Congress Held at Pemba 10–15 Nov.', Zimbabwe News 7, no. 11 (1973): 8–9, 8.43 Ushe, 'Girls' Role in the Struggle', 11.44 'War Communique No 17', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 3 (1978): 23–30, 30.45 J. Ross, 'Mugabe Appoints Cabinet Designed To Placate Whites', Washington Post, March 12, 1980, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1980/03/12/mugabe-appoints-cabinet-designed-to-placate-whites/8b03f5f3-0bb7-4368-834e-29382342af9d/ (accessed August 18, 2022); 'Military Mother Becomes Cabinet Minister', Rand Daily Mail, 18 April 1980, 5; M. Grant, 'Mujuru, Joyce Nhongo', in Dictionary of African Biography, ed. H.L .Gates, E. Akyeampong, and S.J. Niven (Oxford: OUP, 2011), online edition, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-1438 (accessed February 25, 2023). Two other women were appointed to Deputy Minister posts: Victoria Chitepo and Naomi Nhiwatiwa. Chitepo, was promoted to be Minister for Natural Resources and Tourism in 1982: R. Charumbira, 'Chitepo, Victoria Fikile', in Dictionary of African Biography, ed. Gates, Akyeampong, and Niven,https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-0455 (accessed February 25, 2023); 'New Breed of Zimbabwe Women', Rand Daily Mail, 8 April 1980, 2.46 Law, '"We Wanted to be Free as a Nation, and We Wanted to be Free as Women"', 262–3.47 G.W. Seidman, 'Women in Zimbabwe: Postindependence Struggles', Feminist Studies 10, no. 3 (1984): 419–40, esp.438–9.48 Ibid., 428.49 Lyon, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 264–8.50 Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse?, chap.1.51 'Editorial: Immediate Tasks of the Party … People's War', Zimbabwe News 9, no. 2 (1977): 1–3, 2.52 Ibid., 2.53 '1973 Closes-1974 Opens: Editorial', Zimbabwe Review, October 1973, 22.54 'Lisbon Anti-Apartheid Conference', Zimbabwe News 9, no. 4 (1977): 14–17, 16.55 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 159–62; Sibanda, The Zimbabwe African People's Union 1961-87, 175–6.56 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 132.57 Ibid., 162; Lyons cites and quotes: P. Moorcraft and P. McLaughlin, Chimurenga: The War in Rhodesia, 1965–1980 (Marshalltown: Sygma Collins, 1982), 129.58 N. Ndhlovu and C. Wielenga, 'Unequal Access to Redress for Women ex-Combatants in Zimbabwe: An Intersectional Analysis', African Identities (forthcoming, 2021), https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2021.1976105 (accessed February 21, 2023).59 'Zimbabwe Women and Chimurenga', Zimbabwe News 3, no. 5 (1968): 4–5, 4.60 F. Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', Zimbabwe News 8, no. 5 (1974): 9–18, 15.61 'Build the ZANU Women's Campaign! Support the ZANU Women's League! An Interview With Joyce Kangai, Publicity Secretary of the ZANU Women's League, US Branch', in Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 25–6, 25.62 Quoted in Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls, 45–6.63 Law, '"We Wanted to be Free as a Nation, and We Wanted to be Free as Women"', 253.64 Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War, 191–6; Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, chap.5.65 'ZAPU Thanks OAU, Zambia, Tanzania, Socialist Countries', Lusaka Domestic Service, 20 August 1974, FBIS Daily Report - Sub-Saharan Africa, 21 August 1974, FBIS-SSA-74-101, E2.66 S. Churuheminzwa, 'Why I Joined ZANLA Women's Detachment', reproduced in Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 10–11, 11.67 'ZAWU at the World Congress of Women', Zimbabwe Review 1, no. 3 (1969): 12–13, 12.68 N. Nhiwatiwa, 'Speech by Comrade Naomi Nhiwatiwa: Los Angeles, CA: July 1979' in ZANU, Women's Liberation in the Zimbabwean Revolution: Materials from the ZANU Women's Seminar, Maputo, Mozambique, May 1979 (San Francisco, CA; John Brown Book Club & ZANU, 1979?), 24–30, 24.69 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, chap.7, esp.159–60.70 Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? 81; Sibanda, The Zimbabwe African People's Union 1961-87, 175.71 Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War, 191–2; Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 169–70.72 Churuheminzwa, 'Why I Joined ZANLA Women's Detachment', 11.73 Ibid., 11.74 Ropa, '"Our Women are Women of Action"', 21–2.75 Ranchod-Nillson, '"This, Too, is a Way of Fighting": Rural Women's Participation in Zimbabwe's Liberation War', 82.76 'ZANU's Women Militants', Zimbabwe News 5, no. 10 (1970): 12; Sometimes this was also expressed through the voice of women themselves, e.g. 'We, the women of Zimbabwe, are not the only sector of our population that is oppressed. We are oppressed as a nation. We cannot solve our grievances as women alone'. F. Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women', in Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 12–15, 15.77 Jane Ngwenya, quoted in Weinrich, Women and Racial Discrimination in Rhodesia, 24.78 'Young Women's Conference', Zimbabwe Review 4, no. 5 (1975): 4.79 Ropa, 'Women Have Total Involvement in the Struggle', 20.80 Ibid., 21.81 'First Zimbabwe Women's Seminar: Opening Speech by Comrade Robert Mugabe, Prime Minister of the Republic of Zimbabwe, President, Zimbabwe African National Union (Patriotic Front)' [1979], in Liberation Through Participation: Women in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 2–9, 2–3. The historical realities of this situation are discussed in Ranchod-Nilsson, '"This, Too, is a Way of Fighting": Rural Women's Participation in Zimbabwe's Liberation War', 65–6.82 'First Zimbabwe Women's Seminar: Opening Speech by Comrade Robert Mugabe … ', 2–3.83 Ibid., 3.84 Ibid., 2.85 'Forum Interview: Guerilla War in Zimbabwe: A Talk With Eddison Zvobgo', Fletcher Forum of International Affairs 3, no. 1 (1978): 114–17, 116.86 'Statement By Amelia Sibanda of the ANC Delegation from Zimbabwe to Commission 3', Zimbabwe Review 4, no. 5 (1975): 17.87 'The Emancipation of Women and Their Role Towards the Liberation Struggle', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 1 (1978): 23–4, 24.88 Although this was perhaps less than might be assumed: Sibanda, The Zimbabwe African People's Union 1961–87, 7, n. 8.89 'African Wife Should Inherit Husband's Estate Directly', reprint from Rhodesia Herald-Business Herald, 4 May 1978, 1, reproduced in Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa No.1928 (Arlington, VA: Joint Publications Research Service, 1978), 29–30.90 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 10.91 'Lisbon Anti-Apartheid Conference', 16.92 Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls, 46–8.93 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women', 12.94 'The Emancipation of Women and Their Role Towards the Liberation Struggle', 23.95 Schmidt, 'Patriarchy, Capitalism, and the Colonial State in Zimbabwe', 734–5.96 R.G. Mugabe, 'The Role and History of Women in the National Struggle: Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) Women's Seminar: Opening Address by Comrade President R.G. Mugabe: Xai Xai, May 21, 1979', in Women's Liberation in the Zimbabwean Revolution, 7–23, 12.97 'Build the Women's Campaign! Support the ZANU Women's League!', 25. See also: 'Chimurenga! 'We Are Our Own Liberators': An Interview With ZANU Representative Leonard Mudavanhu', Breakthrough: Political Journal of the Prairie Fire Organising Committee 1, no. 3–4 (1977): 7–16, 14.98 'Chimurenga! 'We Are Our Own Liberators', 13.99 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 16.100 'Through Revolt', 1–2.101 Ibid., 2.102 'Exclusive Interview With ZAPU Leader: Interview With Secretary-General of ZAPU, Edward Ndlovu, in Cairo', Southern Africa 6, no. 5 (1973): 20–3, 21.103 N. Mohamed, 'The Educational Front: The Instrumentalisation of Education During the Zimbabwean Liberation Struggle, 1964–1980' (DPhil diss., Oxford, 2020).104 'The Role of Zimbabwe Women in the Struggle', 6.105 'Exclusive Interview With ZAPU Leader', 21.106 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 15.107 Ibid., 15.108 Ibid., 15.109 'Zimbabwe Women and Chimurenga', 5.110 Ushe, 'Girls' Role in the Struggle', 11.111 Lyons, 'Guerrilla Girls and Women in the Zimbabwean National Liberation Struggle', 315–17.112 Nhongo-Simbanegavi, For Better or Worse? 49.113 ZANU published a letter maintaining an anti-abortion position: M. Mundondo, '"Family Planning and Africa: Masses Are the Main Force in Production and Development"', letter to the editor, Zimbabwe News, 2–3, 3.114 'Zimbabwe Women Joining the National Struggle', Zimbabwe News 5, no. 13 (1971): 5.115 'Other Fronts of the Struggle', Zimbabwe Review, 17 November 1973, 6–7, 7.116 J. Brownell, The Collapse of Rhodesia: Population Demographics and the Politics of Race (London: I. B. Tauris, 2011), chap.3. See also: A. Kaler, Running After Pills: Politics, Gender, and Contraception in Colonial Zimbabwe (London: Heinemann, 2003).117 '"Women Are Part and Parcel of the Revolution and Part and Parcel of Zimbabwe"', 30.118 Ibid., 30.119 On the links between women's groups in Africa and Europe (although not Rhodesia), see: K. Ghodsee, Second World, Second Sex: Socialist Women's Activism and Global Solidarity During the Cold War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2019).120 Lyons, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, 56–7.121 T. Ropa, '"Our Women are Women of Action"', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 1 (1978): 21–2, 22.122 'Zimbabwe's Women: Throwing Off the Past', Southern Africa 12, no. 9 (1979): 7–8+19, 19.123 This is described in A. Kaler, 'Maternal Identity and War in "Mothers of the Revolution"', NWSA Journal 9, no. 1 (1997): 1–21, 5. See also: Lyon, Guns and Guerrilla Girls, chap. 6; Kaler, 'Maternal Identity and War in "Mothers of the Revolution"', 5.124 'ANC Spokesman Warns of Armed Struggle', Lusaka Domestic Service, 7 October 1975, FBIS Daily Report - Sub-Saharan Africa, 9 October 1975, FBIS-SAF-75-197, E4.125 'Victory to ZANU! Support the ZANU Women's Campaign', ZANU Pamphlet, 1979, African Activist Archive Project, Michigan State University, https://africanactivist.msu.edu/document_metadata.php?objectid=210-808-6888 (accessed June 3, 2023), 2.126 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 11.127 'Through Revolt', 2; 'ZAWU at the World Congress of Women', 13.128 'South Africa Women's Day: "We Have Taken Up Arms"', Zimbabwe Review July 1973, 6–7, 7. See also: 'Zimbabwe Women's Union Officials Interviewed', 64.129 The woman in question was Angela Davis: Ushe, 'Girls' Role in the Struggle', 11.130 C. Bulbeck, 'Hearing the Difference: First and Third World Feminisms', Asian Studies Review 15, no. 1 (1991): 77–91; J. Chadya, 'Mother Politics: Anti-Colonial Nationalism and the Woman Question in Africa', Journal of Women's History 15, no. 3 (2003): 153–7; R.S. Herr, 'Reclaiming Third World Feminism: or Why Transnational Feminism Needs Third World Feminism', Meridians 12, no. 1 (2014): 1–30; K. Jayawardena, Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World (London: Zed, 1986); C.T. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991); G. Waylen, 'Analysing Women in the Politics of the Third World', Review of Japanese Culture and Society 9 (1997), 1–14; G. Waylen, Gender in Third World Politics (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1996).131 D. Mutumbuka, 'Foundation of a New Mentality', Zimbabwe News 10, no. 6 (1978): 54–60, 57.132 Cover-page image and caption, Zimbabwe News 5, no. 11 (1970): 1. See also: Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 11.133 Tichavapedza, 'Zimbabwe Women! Zimbabwe Needs You', 15.134 Ibid., 14.135 'Smith's Terror Against the Masses', Zimbabwe Review 5, no. 2 (1976): 10–11, 11.136 Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War, 194.Additional informationNotes on contributorsHugh PattendenHugh Pattenden is a Visiting Academic at the Centre for Imperial and Post Colonial Studies, University of Southampton, and a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. His main area of research is the decolonisation of Zimbabwe. His most recent project, of which this article forms part, focuses on how Zimbabwean nationalists used propaganda to advance their cause during the time of Rhodesia's UDI (1965–80).
Referência(s)