Internationalist or Realist? Australia’s Foreign Policy under the Whitlam Labor Government (1972–75)
2023; Routledge; Volume: 46; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075332.2023.2250791
ISSN1949-6540
Autores Tópico(s)Australian History and Society
ResumoAbstractThe foreign policies of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) government of Gough Whitlam are typically located within the 'internationalist' tradition of Australia's foreign policy. By contrast, this article argues that Whitlam's foreign policy record is best accounted for by a realist interpretation that emphasises relative power, sensitivity to context, and pragmatism. This is demonstrated by Whitlam's reorientation of Australia's relationships away from Britain and the smaller non-communist states of Asia toward China and Indonesia, distancing itself from Washington while maintaining ANZUS, deepening engagement with Japan, and improving relations with the Soviet bloc. This was justified according to the relative weight and importance of these states to Australia's national interests based on a pragmatic reading of the easing Cold War context of the early 1970s. Whitlam's foreign policy was most effective in developing important bilateral relationships with significant powers regardless of their ideology or human rights records. It was less so in its multilateral initiatives in the Asia-Pacific, at the United Nations and with the non-aligned movement, which were largely rhetorical and symbolic, and failed to resonate with international audiences. Whitlam's foreign policy record is not consistent with the internationalist tradition and is best understood from a realist perspective.Keywords: InternationalismrealismAustralian foreign policyWhitlam government AcknowledgementsI would like to thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their comprehensive feedback and useful suggestions for improving the manuscript. Any errors remain the responsibility of the author.Disclosure statementNo declaration of interest to be made.Notes1 On the Labor or internationalist tradition, see See David Lee and Christopher Waters (eds), Evatt to Evans: The Labor Tradition in Australian Foreign Policy (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); Allan Patience, Australian Foreign Policy in Asia: Middle Power or Awkward Partner? (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan, 2018), 53-54, 59-61; Michael Wesley and Tony Warren, 'Wild Colonial Ploys? Currents of Thought in Australian Foreign Policy', Australian Journal of Political Science, xxxv (2000), 9-26; Adam Hughes Henry, 'Gough Whitlam and the Politics of Universal Human Rights', The International Journal of Human Rights, xxiv (2020), 797-803.2 See Josh Frydenberg, John Langmore and Melissa Parke, 'The Liberal/Labor Tradition' in Daniel Baldino, Andrew Carr and Anthony J. Langlois (eds), Australian Foreign Policy: Controversies and Debates (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2014), 19-38; Owen Harries, Benign or Imperial? Reflections on American Hegemony (Sydney: ABC Books, 2004), 78-83; and Gary Smith and David Lowe, 'Howard, Downer and the Liberals' Realist Tradition', Australian Journal of International Affairs, li (2005), 459-72.3 On the themes of abandonment and dependence, see Allan Gyngell, Fear of Abandonment: Australia in the World since 1942 (Melbourne: Black Inc., 2017); Bruce Grant, The Crisis of Loyalty: A Study of Australian Foreign Policy (London: Angus and Robertson, 1972); and Coral Bell, Dependent Ally: A Study in Australian Foreign Policy (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1988).4 Dan Halvorson, Commonwealth Responsibility and Cold War Solidarity: Australia in Asia, 1944-74 (Canberra, ANU Press, 2019), 3.5 'Liberal and Country Party Foreign Policy: Goals and Guidelines', 23 April 1974, N[ational] A[rchives] of A[ustralia] A1838/3004/11 Part 12.6 'The Foreign and Defence Policies of Mr Whitlam's Government', British High Commission (HC) Canberra to Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) London, 28 May 1974, [Kew, United Kingdom, The National Archives] F[oreign] and C[ommonwealth] O[ffice Records] 24/1926.7 'Australian-American Relations: Current and Prospective', Address by Marshall Green, US Ambassador to Australia, Asia Society, New York, 11 March 1975, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.8 For example: W.J. Hudson, 'Problems in Australian Foreign Policy, July to December 1975', Australian Journal of Politics and History, xxii (1976), 1-2; John Ingleson, 'South-East Asia', in W.J. Hudson (ed), Australia in World Affairs 1971-75 (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980), 283; Owen Harries, 'Australia's Foreign Policy under Whitlam', Orbis: Journal of World Affairs xix (1975), 1096; and Joe Camilleri, 'In Search of a Foreign Policy', Arena, xxxii-xxxiii (1973), 65-79.9 See Michael Kirby, 'Whitlam as Internationalist: A Century Reflection', Melbourne University Law Review, xxxix (2016), 894; Jon Piccini, Human Rights in Twentieth-Century Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), Chapters 4–5.10 Gough Whitlam, The Whitlam Government 1972-1975 (Ringwood, VIC: Viking, 1985), 25.11 Hudson, 'Problems in Australian Foreign Policy', 1-2.12 Camilleri, 'In Search of a Foreign Policy', 75.13 Ingleson, 'South-East Asia', 283.14 P.J. Boyce and R.A. Herr, 'South-West Pacific', in W.J. Hudson (ed), Australia in World Affairs 1971-75 (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980), 343.15 Richard Broinowski, Fact or Fission? The Truth about Australia's Nuclear Ambitions (Carlton North, VIC: Scribe, 2022), 106.16 Sean Scalmer, 'Being Practical in Early and Contemporary Labor Politics: A Labourist Critique', Australian Journal of Politics and History, xliii (1997), 301-11.17 Penny Wong, 'National Press Club Address, Australian Interests in a Regional Balance of Power', Minister for Foreign Affairs, https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/penny-wong/speech/national-press-club-address-australian-interests-regional-balance-power18 Wong, 'National Press Club Address'.19 See, for example, Christine De Matos, Imposing Peace & Prosperity: Australia, Social Justice and Labour Reform in Occupied Japan (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2008); and Ken Buckley, Barbara Dale and Wayne Reynolds, Doc Evatt: Patriot, Internationalist, Fighter and Scholar (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1994).20 Wayne Reynolds, 'Labor Tradition, Global Shifts and the Foreign Policy of the Whitlam Government', in David Lee and Christopher Waters (eds), Evatt to Evans: The Labor Tradition in Australian Foreign Policy (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997), 114.21 Halvorson, Commonwealth Responsibility, 35.22 Changwei Chen, 'Realism in Whitlam's Foreign Policy', Journal of Australian Studies, xlvi (2022), 465-81.23 Chen, 'Realism in Whitlam's Foreign Policy', 474.24 Scalmer, 'Being Practical in Early and Contemporary Labor Politics'.25 Gustav Meibauer et al., 'Forum: Rethinking Neoclassical Realism at Theory's End', International Studies Review, xxiii (2021), 275. On neoclassical realism more generally, see Gideon Rose, 'Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy', World Politics, li (1998), 144-72; Randall Schweller, 'The Progressiveness of Neoclassical Realism' in Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman (eds), Progress in International Relations Theory: Appraising the Field (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 311-47; and Steven Lobell, Norrin Ripsman and Jeffrey Taliaferro (eds), Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).26 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979).27 Rose, 'Neoclassical Realism', 146.28 Ibid., 147, 168.29 Stephen M. Walt, 'The Enduring Relevance of the Realist Tradition' in Ira Katznelson and Helen V. Milner (eds), Political Science: The State of the Discipline (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2002), 211.30 Walt, 'The Enduring Relevance of the Realist Tradition', 201.31 Meibauer et al., 'Forum', 285.32 Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, 8.33 Dan Halvorson, 'From Commonwealth Responsibility to the National Interest: Australia and Post-War Decolonisation in South-East Asia', The International History Review, xl (2018), 884. On Gorton's 'new' nationalism, see Stuart Ward, Australia and the British Embrace: The Demise of the Imperial Ideal (Carlton South, VIC: Melbourne University Press, 2001).34 Changwei Chen, 'Rupture or Continuity? The Evolving Australian Approach to the Five Power Defence Arrangements from Gorton to Whitlam', History Australia, xix (2022), 250.35 Dan Halvorson, 'From Cold War Solidarity to Transactional Engagement: Reinterpreting Australia's Relations with East Asia, 1950-74', Journal of Cold War Studies, xviii (2016), 149-50; Halvorson, Commonwealth Responsibility, 121-8.36 Neville Meaney, Australia and the World: A Documentary History from the 1870s to the 1970s (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1985), 3-4.37 See, for example, House of Representatives, Official Hansard, No. 22, 1973, 28th Parl., 1st Sess., 1st Period, 31 May 1973, 3018-21; 'Australian Labor Party Conference: Prime Minister's Foreign Policy Speech', 12 July 1973, FCO 24/1596; 'Prime Minister's Visit: Press Club Speech', Australian Embassy Washington to Department of Foreign Affairs(DFA) Canberra, 30 July 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 9; 'SEATO Council Meeting', Talking Points, DFA Canberra to Washington, 25 Sept. 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 11; 'PM's Visit to Europe: Report to Parliament', Canberra to All Posts, 11 Feb. 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 12.38 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.39 Neville Meaney, 'The United States', in W.J. Hudson (ed), Australian in World Affairs 1971-1975 (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980), 164.40 See, for example, 'Broadcast by the Prime Minister', Canberra to All Posts, 23 Dec. 1972, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 9.41 'A Selection of Statements on Foreign Affairs by the Australian Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, Mr Whitlam, and the Special Minister of State, Mr Willesee', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam speech to Australian Institute of Political Science, Canberra, 27 Jan. 1973).42 'Speech by the Prime Minister of Australia, The Hon. E.G. Whitlam, Q.C., M.P., to the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia (Indonesian Parliament) in Jakarta, Thursday 22 February 1973', FCO 24/1600.43 Hansard, 31 May 1973, 3019.44 'Record of Conversation with His Excellency Mr Basov, Ambassador of the USSR and Mr G.B. Feakes, Acting Deputy Secretary DFA', 4 March 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 12.45 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.46 'Prime Minister's Visit', 30 July 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 9.47 'Australia's Relations with Indonesia', 3 Sept. 1973, FCO 15/1867.48 See Halvorson, Commonwealth Responsibility, Chapter 6.49 House of Representatives, Official Hansard, No. 18, 1973, 28th Parl., 1st Sess. 1st Period, 1 May 1973, 1492.50 Robert O'Neill, 'Defence Policy', in W.J. Hudson (ed), Australia in World Affairs 1971-75 (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980), 11-36.51 See, for example, 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10; Australian Consulate-General New York to Washington and Canberra, 4 Jan. 1974, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.52 House of Representatives, Official Hansard, No. 21, 1973, 28th Parl., 1st Sess., 1st Period, 24 May 1973, 2644.53 'Australian Statements on Viet Nam', 25 Jan. 1973, FCO 24/1596.54 'Record of a Meeting between the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary and the Australian Prime Minister held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office on Tuesday 24 April at 10.30am', 24 April 1973, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 1; 'Prime Minister's Visit: Press Club Questions and Answers', Washington to Canberra, 30 July 1973, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 9.55 'Record of a Meeting between the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary and the Defence Secretary and the Australian Prime Minister held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office on Tuesday 24 April at Noon', 24 April 1973, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 1; 'SEATO Council Dinner Meeting', Australian Mission to the United Nations, New York to Canberra, Washington, Bangkok, 28 Sept. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.56 'Review of SEATO', 9 July 1973, NAA A1838/250/8/20 Part 4.57 'Australian Views of SEATO', London to Bangkok, 18 July 1975, FCO 24/2061.58 'Australian Election: Five Power Defence', Canberra to London, 4 Dec. 1972, FCO 68/91.59 'AAP Reports', 5 Dec. 1972, NAA A1838/3004/13/21 Part 20; 'Record of Meeting between the Australian Minister for Defence, The Hon. Mr Lance Barnard, MP, and the British Secretary of State for Defence, the Rt. Hon. Lord Carrington', 18 June 1973, FCO 24/1559; 'Five Power Defence Arrangements', Note by K.M. Wilford, FCO South West Pacific Department on Meeting with Indonesian Ambassador to United Kingdom, 10 July 1973, FCO 24/1559.60 See, for example, 'Record of Conversation', 22 Feb. 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1; 'Thailand: Press Comment on Australia', Bangkok to Canberra, 23 Feb. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 9; New Zealand Embassy Bangkok to Wellington, 5 March 1973, NAA A1838/3004/13/21 Part 23.61 Washington to Canberra, 11 April 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 10.62 'Mr Whitlam's Discussions in London: 19-20 December 1974. Part I: Political', British HC Canberra to Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary, 2 Dec. 1974, FCO 24/1911.63 'Policy Toward the Commonwealth', 5 Oct. 1973, FCO 24/1855; see also Ninkola Pijovic, 'The Commonwealth: Australia's Traditional "Window" into Africa', The Round Table, ciii (2014), 387-9.64 See Hansard, 1 May 1973, 1492; 'The Australian Labour [sic] Party Government (2)', 5 April 1973, FCO 24/1596.65 Canberra to London (Personal for Prime Minister Heath from Defence Secretary Carrington), 21 Feb. 1973, FCO 24/1596.66 'Personality Note: The Hon (Edward) Gough Whitlam, QC MP, Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs', April 1973, [Prime Minister's Office Records] PREM 15/1299.67 'A Selection of Statements', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam Press Conference Canberra, 5 December 1972).68 'Broadcast by the Prime Minister', 23 Dec. 1972, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 9.69 'A Selection of Statements', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam announcement of visit to Indonesia, 10 January 1973).70 Canberra to Jakarta, 6 Dec. 1972, NAA A1838/3006/9/1 Part 7.71 'Visit to Indonesia by Australian Prime Minister', Jakarta to London, 5 March 1973, FCO 24/1600; 'Meeting: Mr Barnard and President Soeharto', Jakarta to Canberra, 9 April 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1; 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to Indonesia: 5-8 September', Canberra to London, 19 Sept. 1974, FCO 15/1867.72 Canberra to London, 12 Sept. 1974, FCO 15/1867; 'Meeting: Mr Barnard and President Soeharto', 9 April 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1; Hansard, 24 May 1973, 2646; Richard Tanter, 'Australian Military Aid to Indonesia', East Timor Today, Australian Council for Overseas Aid (ACFOA) Development Dossier, i (1980), 38.73 'Record of Conversation with Mr A.P. Rajah, High Commissioner for Singapore and Senator D. Willesee, Minister of State', 26 Feb. 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1.74 'Record of a Meeting', 24 April 1973, NAA 1838/686/1 Part 1.75 'Mr Whitlam's Visit', Singapore to London, 12 Feb. 1974, FCO 15/1867; 'Transcript of Briefing Given by Mr R.A. Woolcott, Department of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, on 23 January, 1974', NAA A1209/1974/6181.76 Speeches for Whitlam Visit to SE Asia, Feb. 1974, NAA A1209/1974/6084.77 'Relations with PRC', Canberra to Jakarta, Singapore, Manila, Rangoon, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, 5 Dec. 1972, NAA A1838/3004/13/21 Part 20.78 'Press Statement, Establishment of Diplomatic Relations with China', 21 Dec. 1972, FCO 24/1337.79 'A Selection of Statements', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam speech, Pacific Basin Economic Council, Sydney, 14 May 1973).80 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to London, April 1973', Omnibus Brief for Secretary of State, 16 April 1973, PREM 15/1299; 'Record of Conversation between the Permanent Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Secretary of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs, Held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office on Tuesday 17 September 1974 at 11am', FCO 15/1859.81 'Visit by Australian Ministers to Peking', London to Canberra, 29 Nov. 1973, FCO 24/1602.82 Peking to London, 8 Nov. 1973, FCO 24/1602.83 'Australian Labor Party Conference', 12 July 1973, FCO 24/1596.84 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10; see also 'Prime Minister's Address to National Press Club', Canberra to Peking, Washington, Tokyo, 8 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 11.85 Hansard, 24 May 1973, 2649.86 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10; 'Prime Minister's Address to National Press Club', 8 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 11.87 'Roy Milne Lecture', 30 Nov. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.88 Moreen Dee, Friendship and Co-operation: The 1976 Basic Treaty between Australia and Japan, Australia in the World, The Foreign Affairs and Trade Files, No. 3 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2006); Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Basic Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation between Australia and Japan, 16 June 1976, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/japan/Pages/basic-treaty-of-friendship-and-co-operation-between-australia-and-japan89 'Prime Minister's Visit', 30 July 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 9.90 'A Selection of Statements', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam Speech, Australian Institute of Political Science, 27 January 1973).91 'A Selection of Statements', 8 Aug. 1973, FCO 24/1596 (Whitlam quoted in The Bulletin, 7 April 1973).92 'Australian Labor Party Conference', 12 July 1973, FCO 24/1596.93 Washington to London, 24 Jan. 1973, FCO 24/1596; 'Australian/American Relations', Canberra to London, 10 Jan. 1973, FCO 24/1596; 'Bans on United States Flag Ships', Washington to Canberra, 12 Jan. 1973, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 9.94 See James Curran, 'The Dilemmas of Divergence: The Crisis in American-Australian Relations, 1972-1975', Diplomatic History, xxxviii (2014), 377-408; James Curran, Unholy Fury: Whitlam and Nixon at War (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2015). For a somewhat different interpretation, see also Andrea Benvenuti and David Martin Jones, 'With Friends Like These: Australia, the United States, and Southeast Asian Détente', Journal of Cold War Studies, 21 (2019), 1-31.95 'Talk by Mr Barnard and Dr Kissinger', Washington to Canberra, 10 Jan. 1974, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.96 Washington to Canberra, 13 March 1974, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.97 'Mr Whitlam's Discussions in London', 2 Dec. 1974, PREM 16/300.98 Sir Arthur Tange, Defence Policy-Making: A Close Up View, 1950-1980 (Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2008), 69-76; Broinowski, Fact or Fission? 115-7; O'Neill, 'Defence Policy', 17-18; Reynolds, 'Labor Tradition', 120; Meaney, 'The United States', 190-8.99 'Australian-American Relations', 11 March 1975, NAA A1838/686/1 Part 10.100 Canberra to London, 19 Dec. 1972, FCO 68/391; 'The Australian Labour [sic] Party Government (2)', 5 April 1973, FCO 24/1596; 'Talks Between the Prime Minister and the Prime Minister of Australia – 19 and 20 December 1974: Australian Foreign Policy', 12 Dec. 1974, FCO 24/1901; 'Visit of Australian Foreign Minister to Korea', Seoul to London, 26 June 1975, FCO 24/2061.101 Hansard, 24 May 1973, 2645.102 'Australian-Soviet Relations', DFA Record of Conversation between V.N. Smirnov (Counsellor, Embassy of the USSR) and N.K. Poseliagin (First Secretary, Embassy of the USSR) with P.F. Peters (Head, East Europe Section) and P. Knight (Counsellor Designate Moscow), 26 April 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1; 'U.S.S.R./Australia Scientific Exchanges Agreement', M/97, 5 July 1974, https://pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/original/00003318.pdf103 'PM's Visit to Europe: Report to Parliament', Canberra to All Posts, 11 Feb. 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 12.104 'PM's Visit to Europe', 11 Feb. 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 12.105 'Australia: Regional Political Organisations', DFA Brief for Foreign Minister (Whitlam), 8 January 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11, Part 15.106 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to London, April 1973', UK FCO Steering Brief, 16 April 1973, FCO 24/1613.107 See, for example, 'Record of Conversation between H.E. Mr A.P. Rajah, High Commissioner for Singapore and Mr H.D. Anderson, Regional Organisation', Canberra, 22 Feb. 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4 Part 1; 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to London, April 1973', Omnibus Brief for Secretary of State, 16 April 1973, PREM 15/1299; 'Australian Foreign Policy: New Regional Political Arrangements', Canberra to Tokyo, Bangkok, Manila, Singapore, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Peking, Seoul, Saigon, Vientiane, Phnom Penh, Rangoon, New Delhi, Wellington, London, Washington, Moscow, Paris, Bonn, Ottawa, Port Moresby, Suva, 10 Sept. 1973, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 11. See also Andrea Benvenuti, 'Much Ado about Little: The Whitlam Government and Australia's Engagement with Southeast Asia', Diplomacy & Statecraft, xxxiii (2022), 493-517, for a recent, critical analysis of the Whitlam government's record in Southeast Asia.108 See, for example, 'ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting', Kuala Lumpur to Canberra, 16 February 1973, NAA A1838/696/1/5/4, Part 1.109 'Australia and the U.N.', Canberra to London, 21 Dec. 1972, FCO 24/1335.110 'The Australian Labour [sic] Party Government (2)' 5 April 1973, FCO 24/1596.111 'Talks Between the Prime Minister and the Prime Minister of Australia', 12 Dec. 1974, FCO 24/1901.112 'Australia and New Zealand', 18 Oct. 1974, FCO 24/1855.113 Nicholas Ferns, 'The Middle Zone: The 1964 UN Conference on Trade and Development and the Australian Response', Journal of World History, xxxii (2021), 465-89.114 Ferns, 'The Middle Zone', 467.115 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to Indonesia—20–23 February', 20 March 1973, FCO 24/1600.116 'The Prime Minister's Visit to Singapore', 16 July 1975, NAA M126/5/7 Part 2.117 'Foreign Minister's Attendance at Major Multilateral Meetings', Foreign Affairs News Release M59, 29 Aug. 1975, FCO 24/2061; 'Australia and the Non-Aligned Movement', Canberra to London, 27 Aug. 1975, FCO 24/2061.118 Roland Burke and Jon Piccini, 'Australia and the United Nations' in Bridget Brooklyn, Benjamin T. Jones and Rebecca Strating (eds), Australia on the World Stage: History, Politics and International Relations (Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge, 2022), 202.119 Changwei Chen, 'Shifting Interests: Whitlam, Britain and French Nuclear Tests in the South Pacific', Australian Journal of Politics and History, lix (2013), 196-200; Stephen Henningham, 'Whitlam and Australia's Relations with France', History Australia, xiv (2017), 416.120 Chen, 'Shifting Interests', 198-200; Broinowski, Fact or Fission? 109.121 Ian Clark, 'The Indian Ocean' in W.J. Hudson (ed), Australia in World Affairs 1971-75 (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980), 316.122 Chen, 'Shifting Interests', 200.123 Boyce and Herr, 'South-West Pacific', 343-4.124 Clark, 'The Indian Ocean', 315-6.125 Record of Meeting with Alan Griffith, First Assistant Secretary, Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, FCO South West Pacific Department, 12 June 1974, FCO 24/1910. For a comprehensive analysis of Whitlam's policy toward the Indian Ocean region and Diego Garcia issue, see Changwei Chen, 'A Diplomatic Tightrope: The Whitlam Government and the Diego Garcia Dilemma', The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, xlii (2014), 530-50.126 Kirby, 'Whitlam as Internationalist', 859-64; Henry, 'Gough Whitlam and the Politics of Universal Human Rights', 802.127 Burke and Piccini, 'Australia and the United Nations', 205.128 Ibid., 206.129 Piccini, Human Rights in Twentieth-Century Australia, 121.130 'National Press Club – Questions and Answers', Washington to Canberra, 9 May 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 15.131 'Strategic Basis of Australian Defence Policy', October 1975, in Stephan Frühling (ed), A History of Australian Strategic Policy since 1945 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2009), 534.132 See Mattias Fibiger, 'A Diplomatic Counter-Revolution: Indonesian Diplomacy and the Invasion of East Timor', Modern Asian Studies, lv (2021), 587-628.133 'Portuguese Timor', Canberra to London, 26 Sept. 1974, FCO 15/1867.134 Canberra to London, 12 Sept. 1974, FCO 15/1867; Ingleson, 'South-East Asia', 285-6.135 See 'Mr Whitlam's Visit to Indonesia: 5-8 September', Canberra to London, 19 Sept. 1974, FCO 15/1867; 'Portuguese Timor', Canberra to London, 24 Oct. 1974; 26 Oct. 1974; 29 Aug. 1975, FCO 24/2061.136 'Record of Conversation between Whitlam and Soeharto', Townsville, 4 April 1975, https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/historical-documents/Pages/volume-20/123-record-of-conversation-between-whitlam-and-soeharto137 See, for example, James Mackie, 'Australia and Indonesia', Australian Journal of International Affairs, lv (2001), 133-43; Katsumi Ishizuka, 'Australia's Policy towards East Timor', The Round Table, xciii (2004), 271-85; Michael E. Salla, 'Australian Policy and East Timor', Australian Journal of International Affairs, xlix (1995), 207-22; Nancy Viviani, 'Australians and the Timor Issue', Australian Journal of International Affairs, xxx (1976), 197-22; and Paul M. Monk, 'Secret Intelligence and Escape Clauses: Australia and the Indonesia Annexation of East Timor, 1963-76', Critical Asian Studies, xxxiii (2001), 181-208.138 Kirby, 'Whitlam as Internationalist', 860.139 'Australian and Vietnam', Canberra to London, 1 May 1975, FCO 24/2061.140 See, for example, 'National Press Club', 9 May 1975, NAA A1838/3004/11 Part 15.141 'Australia and Vietnam', 21 May 1975, FCO 24/2061.142 'The Prime Minister's Visit to Singapore', 16 July 1975, NAA M126/5/7 Part 2.143 Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965-2000 (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 395.
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