Populist Nationalism and Anti-refugee Sentiment in Turkey: The Case of the Victory Party
2023; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 30; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13537113.2023.2248792
ISSN1557-2986
Autores Tópico(s)Populism, Right-Wing Movements
ResumoAbstractThroughout the last decade, the refugee issue has profoundly impacted global politics. Accordingly, this study seeks to provide insight into a new political phenomenon in Turkey, namely, the Victory Party (Zafer Partisi, ZP) by analyzing the characteristics of the party's political discourse. Using content analysis and the discourse-historical approach as an extension of critical discourse analysis, this study argues that the ZP's political discourse, which is based on the combination of nationalism and populism, is massively shaped by anti-refugee sentiment. Notes1 Since Turkey has not lifted the geographical limitation in the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, it can only grant refugee status to those fleeing from Europe. See Kemal Kirişci, "The Question of Asylum and Illegal Migration in European Union-Turkish Relations," Turkish Studies 4, no. 1 (2003): 79–106. Therefore, Syrians in Turkey cannot legally use this status. However, the Foreigners and International Protection Law of 2013 granted Syrians in Turkey a temporary protection status that is "provided for foreigners who have been forced to leave their country, cannot return to the country that they have left, and have arrived at or crossed the borders of Turkey in a mass influx situation seeking immediate and temporary protection." See Presidency of Migration Management, "Temporary protection in Turkey," https://en.goc.gov.tr/temporary-protection-in-turkey. Nevertheless, for the sake of clarity, this study uses the term 'refugee' to refer to Syrians in Turkey.2 It is not a coincidence that this date was chosen. In 1944, Nihal Atsız, one of the most prominent ideologues advocating pan-Turkish and racist ideals, was brought to trial for insulting socialist author Sabahattin Ali. Atsız's supporters demonstrated in Ankara during his second trial on 3 May 1944. In the wake of this demonstration, ultra-nationalist figures like Reha Oğuz Türkkan and Zeki Velidi Togan were arrested. Due to the demonstration on 3 May 1944 and subsequent events that mark a critical phase in the rise of Turkish nationalism, ultra-nationalists in Turkey celebrate 3 May as "Turkism Day."3 Hande Karacasu, Sessiz istila [Video]. YouTube, 3 May 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EpPo5vjC2bE4 Karacasu, Sessiz istila.5 Türk milliyetçiliği ırkçılık değildir. 5 May 2022. Sözcü.6 Ümit Özdağ, [@umitozdag]. H.Karacasu tarafından çekilen Sessiz İstila. 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Kerem Morgül, "Beyond the Inclusion-Exclusion Dichotomy in Populism Studies."49 Ruth Wodak, "What CDA Is About–a Summary of Its History, İmportant Concepts and Its Developments," in Methods of Critical Dιscourse Analysis, edited by Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (London: Sage, 2001), 1–13, 2.50 Martin Reisigl and Ruth Wodak, "The Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA)," in Methods for Critical Discourse Analysis, edited by Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (London: Sage, 2009), 87–121, 93–95.51 Martin Reisigl, "Analyzing Political Rhetoric," in Qualitative Discourse Analysis in the Social Sciences, edited by Ruth Wodak and Michal Krzyzanowski (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 100.52 Zafer Partisi, "Zafer Partisi gelecek, tüm sığınmacı ve kaçaklar gidecek," https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/53 Reisigl, "Analyzing Political Rhetoric," 104.54 Ümit Özdağ, Her sözleri seçim yalanından ibaret olan iktidar ve sarı muhalefet sığınmacıları göndermeyecek! [Video]. YouTube, 5 May 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9Ffa1KOs2Y55 Andreas Schedler, "Anti-Political-Establishment Parties," Party Politics 2, no. 3 (1996): 291–312, 292–295.56 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 2021. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/parti-programi/, 14.57 Schedler, "Anti-Political-Establishment Parties."58 Ümit Özdağ, Erkeksen yarın saat 11.00'de İçişleri Bakanlığı önünde olacağım Süleyman! [Video]. YouTube, 5 May 2022c. ; Ümit Özdağ, Süleyman Soylu'nun bir korkak olduğunu tüm Türkiye gördü! [Video]. YouTube, 6 May 2022d. ; "Battle of words between Soylu, Özdağ turns into standoff," Daily Sabah, 6 May 2022. ; Turkey Refugee Row Sees Erdogan Challenger Clash With Police, Bloomberg, 6 May 2022. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-06/turkish-immigration-spat-heats-up-with-face-off-outside-ministry?srnd=premium-middle-east59 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 2021b. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/kurulus-manifestosu/60 Ibid., 24.61 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı" 20; Zafer Partisi, "Parti tüzüğü," 1. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/parti-tuzugu/, 1.62 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 28–29.63 Ümit Özdağ, "Suriyeliler konusunda yapılan iftiralara cevap," 2021. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/suriyeliler-konusunda-yapilan-iftiralara-cevap/64 Özdağ, "Suriyeli sığınmacıların vatanlarına dönmeleri için yapılması gerekenler." 2021. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/suriyeli-siginmacilarin-vatanlarina-donmeleri-icin-yapilmasi-gerekenler/65 Ümit Özdağ, "Süleyman Soylu'ya sorular," 2021. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/suleyman-soyluya-sorular/; Ümit Özdağ, "Stratejik göç mühendisliği," 2020. https://umitozdag.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/STRATEJIKgoc-2-baski-PDF.pdf, 107–117.66 Ümit Özdağ, "Saray rejiminin son propagandası: korona ile mücadelede başarı efsanesi," 2021; Ümit Özdağ, Türkiye neden bir göç merkezi yapılmak isteniyor? [Video]. YouTube, 7 May 2022; Ümit Özdağ, Zafer Partisi sığınmacı ve kaçakları nasıl gönderecek? [Video]. YouTube, 20 March 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZzhOM3ISWQ67 It is difficult to make clear and sharp distinctions between these terms in the Turkish linguistic-cultural context. For instance, in Turkish, the term mülteci refers to refugees as well as asylum seekers, despite the distinction between the two. In a similar vein, the term göçmen is used synonymously with muhacir, which is derived from the term hicret (migration) referring to the migration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622. The term muhacir also refers to Ottoman Muslim citizens who immigrated to Anatolia during the late Ottoman era. While the AKP uses muhacir in a positive sense within its discourse on refugees (Aydemir, "Framing Syrian Refugees in Turkish Politics"; Karakaya Polat, "Religious Solidarity, Historical Mission and Moral Superiority"; Morgül, "Beyond the Inclusion-Exclusion Dichotomy in Populism Studies."), the ZP does not employ this term in its political vocabulary. Additionally, the ZP rarely uses the term göçmen. However, sığιnmacι and kaçak are two words frequently used in party documents and Özdağ's statements. Remarkably, the Turkish word kaçak can also be translated as "fugitive". One can say that this translation is also consistent with the ZP's portrayal of asylum-seekers and illegal migrants as those who engage in criminal activities and attempt to elude law enforcement.68 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı"; Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu."69 P. Taggart, "Populism and Representative Politics in Contemporary Europe," Journal of Political Ideologies 9, no. 3 (2004): 269–88, 274.70 Hakkı Taş, "The Chronopolitics of National Populism," Identities 29, no. 2 (2022): 127–45.71 Ayhan Kaya, "The Use of the past by the Alternative for Germany and the Front National: Heritage Populism, Ostalgia and Jeanne D'Arc," Journal of Contemporary European Studies 31, no. 2 (2023): 318–31.72 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 10.73 Sven Engesser, Nicole Ernst, Frank Esser, and Florin Büchel, "Populism and Social Media: How Politicians Spread a Fragmented Ideology," Information, Communication & Society 20, no. 8 (2017): 1109–26, 1111.74 Ezgi Elçi, "The Rise of Populism in Turkey: A Content Analysis," Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 19, no. 3 (2019): 387–408.75 Ümit Özdağ, "Hatay'a girmemiz engelleniyor!" [Video]. YouTube, 27 June 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDWlDqpEf1Q76 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 6, 8, 10.77 Ibid., 6.78 Ibid., 12.79 Ibid., 11.80 Cumhuriyet, "Ümit Özdağ'ın 'Suriyeli hırsız' dediği genç hafız çıktı," https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/siyaset/umit-ozdagin-suriyeli-hirsiz-dedigi-genc-hafiz-cikti-205052481 Ibid.82 Cumhuriyet, "Hırsız Suriyeli' iddiası gerçek çıkmayan Ümit Özdağ," https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/siyaset/hirsiz-suriyeli-iddiasi-gercek-cikmayan-umit-ozdag-niye-ozur-dileyeyim-kendisi-ozur-dilesin-205063983 Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998), 23–25.84 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı"; Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu."85 Ibid.86 Zafer Partisi, "Parti Programı", 215; Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş Manifestosu", 39.87 Ibid., 214, 39.88 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 8.89 Ibid., 2.90 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 33.91 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 6–7, 21–22.92 Ibid., 11.93 Ibid., 14.94 Ibid.95 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı."96 Ümit Özdağ, [@umitozdag]. Türkiye BM'ye 9 milyon Suriyeli'nin bakımını üstlendiğini bildirdi. Twitter, 2 March 2021. https://twitter.com/umitozdag/status/136685013478142362497 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 218.98 Ayşegül Kayaoglu, 2021. Do Refugees Cause Crime? Economic Research Forum working paper series, 11–12, 33. https://erf.org.eg/app/uploads/2021/04/1618392168_799_1353558_1470.pdf99 Canovan, "Trust the People! Populism and the Two Faces of Democracy"; David Howarth, "Populism or Popular Democracy? The UDF, Workerism and the Struggle for Radical Democracy in South Africa," in Populism and the Mirror of Democracy, edited by Francisco Panizza (London: Verso, 2005), 202–223; Ben Stanley, "The Thin Ideology of Populism," Journal of Political Ideologies 13, no. 1 (2008): 95–110. Ernesto Laclau, On Populist Reason (London: Verso, 2018).100 Ümit Özdağ, "Stratejik göç mühendisliği," 135.101 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 13, 150, 186, 239.102 Anthony D. Smith, The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge: University Press of New England, 2000); Elie Kedourie, Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 2006); John Breuilly, "Nationalism and the Making of National Pasts," in Nations and Their Histories: Constructions and Representations, edited by Susana Carvalho and François Gemenne (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 7–28; Umut Özkırımlı, Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Eric J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Stefan Berger, "The Return of National History," in The Impact of History?: Histories at the Beginning of the 21st Century, edited by Pedro Ramos Pinto and Bertrand Taithe (New York: Routledge, 2015), 82–94.103 Zafer Partisi, "Parti Programı," 14.104 Ibid., 14–25.105 Ibid., 14.106 Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 39.107 Ibid., 5, 7, 42, 43.108 Ibid., 13.109 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 31, 150, 186, 204. Zafer Partisi, "Kuruluş manifestosu," 21, 23.110 Schedler, "Anti-Political-Establishment Parties," 292.111 Wouter Van der Brug, Meindert Fennema, and Jean Tillie, "Anti-Immigrant Parties in Europe: Ideological or Protest Vote?," European Journal of Political Research 37, no. 1 (2000): 77–102. 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The Czech Radical and Populist Right after the Refugee Crisis," in Radical Right Movement Parties in Europe, edited by Manuela Caiani and Ondrej Císař (New York: Routledge, 2019), 184–98; Cas Mudde, The Far Right Today (Cambridge: Polity, 2019); Klaus Wahl, The Radical Right: Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020); Nicos Trimikliniotis, Migration and the Refugee Dissensus in Europe: Borders, Security and Austerity (New York: Routledge, 2020); Ari Kruglanski, David Webber, and Daniel Koehler, The Radical's Journey: How German Neo-Nazis Voyaged to the Edge and Back (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Jonathan Hopkin, Anti-System Politics: The Crisis of Market Liberalism in Rich Democracies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Lewis Dijkstra, Hugo Poelman, and Andres Rodríguez-Pose, "The Geography of EU Discontent," Regional Studies 54, no. 6 (2020): 737–53. Floya Anthias, Translocational Belongings: Intersectional Dilemmas and Social Inequalities (New York: Routledge, 2021); Anita Nissen, Europeanisation of the Contemporary Far Right: Generation Identity and Fortress Europe (New York: Routledge, 2022).112 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 241.113 Ümit Özdağ, BBN Türk Tv'de Fahrettin Damga'nın sunduğu Politik Adam programında gündemi değerlendiriyorum. [Video]. YouTube, 20 October 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BS02IIdKajI114 Zafer Partisi, "Parti programı," 37.115 Ibid., 245.116 Hans-Georg Betz and Susi Meret, "Revisiting Lepanto: The Political Mobilization against Islam in Contemporary Western Europe," Patterns of Prejudice 43, no. 3–4 (2009): 313–34, 319–320.117 Ayhan Kaya, "Islamophobism as an Ideology in the West: Scapegoating Muslim-Origin Migrants," in An Anthology of Migration and Social Transformation: European Perspectives, edited by Anna Amelina, Keneth Horvath, and Bruno Meeus (Cham: Springer, 2016), 281–94.118 Ahmed Al-Rawi, Islam on YouTube: online Debates, Protests, and Extremism (London: Palgrave, 2012) 71–86; Betz and Meret, "Revisiting Lepanto," 320; Geert Wilders, Marked for Death: Islam's War against the West and Me (Washington: Regnery, 2012), 187–202.119 Brubaker, "Populism and Nationalism."120 Akkerman, "Immigration Policy and Electoral Competition in Western Europe."121 Van Spanje, "Contagious Parties."122 Friedrich Nietzsche, The Dawn of Day (J. M. Kennedy, Trans.). (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1911), 237; Friedrich Nietzsche, Tan Kιzιllιğι: Ahlaksal Önyargιlar Üzerine Düşünceler (H. Salihoğlu and Ü. Özdağ, Trans.). (Ankara: İmge, 2014), 215–216.Additional informationNotes on contributorsH. Bahadır TürkH. Bahadιr Türk is Professor of Political Science at Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Turkey. His articles have appeared in journals such as Turkish Studies, Journal of Political Ideologies, New Perspectives on Turkey, and Middle Eastern Studies.
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