The Central African-Iberian Crossroads: Equatorial Guinea and Spain in US Policy during the 1970s
2023; Taylor & Francis; Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/14682745.2023.2232310
ISSN1743-7962
Autores Tópico(s)Spanish History and Politics
ResumoABSTRACTThis article examines the place of Equatorial Guinea in US-Spanish relations during the final years of the Franco dictatorship and the transition to democracy that followed. It analyses the relationship between US policies toward both countries, explores the degree to which fears of communism and other concerns overlapped and affected one another, and shows how US diplomats internalised Spanish perceptions of Spain’s former colony, thereby influencing US policy toward West Central Africa. The article also helps to decentre the history of the Spanish transition to democracy and the role of the United States therein.KEYWORDS: Equatorial GuineaDecolonizationTransition to DemocracySpainAfricaUnited StatesDecolonisationCultural StudiesTransatlantic Relations Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.Notes1 For example, Thomas Thornton, National Security Council staff paper, undated, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1977–1980, vol. II, doc. 188; ‘Moderner Caligula’, Der Spiegel 26 December 1976, https://www.spiegel.de/politik/moderner-caligula-a-f7fc4b0c-0002-0001-0000-000041066698, accessed 23 September 2022; and Philippe Decraene, ‘Un second Idi Amin en Guinée équatoriale’, 24 Heures (Lausanne), 7 May 1979, 3.I am grateful to Benita Sampedro Vizcaya, Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, Joel Christenson, Carlos Sanz Díaz, Mark Wilkinson, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier versions of this article. Thanks as well to Jochen Arndt, Enrique Martino, Donato Ndongo, Adolfo Obiang Biko, Celestino Okenve, the American Philosophical Society, and the Virginia Military Institute.2 One State Department cable cited a figure of between 50,000 and 90,000 killed. United States (US) Department of State (DoS) Telegram, Washington, 8 September 1978, (College Park, MD: National Archives, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=241049&dt=2694&dl=2009 accessed 27 September 2022. On the exiles, see US DoS Telegram, Washington, 13 September 1979, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=304465&dt=2776&dl=2169 accessed 23 December 2022. Another report estimated that 30,000 were killed and an additional 100,000 forced into exile. Walter Laqueur, et al, ‘The Soviet Union and the World. Part I. Coups D’état: Lessons of the Past, Prospects for the Future, and a Guide for Action’ (typed manuscript), ([Washington, DC]: [1984]), 33.http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA269633 accessed 11 July 2017. Max Liniger-Goumaz, who devoted much of his life studying the country, gives varying figures for the victims of Macías, ranging from ‘several thousands’ to ‘tens of thousands’ killed. Cited in Scott Straus, Making and Unmaking Nations: War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 117.3 In late 1976, the exile community released a list with the names of 490 civil servants killed by the Macías dictatorship. ‘Guinée equatoriale: ‘Un immense centre de torture’, Campagne pour l’abolition de la torture (Amnesty International), March 1978, 1. See also, André Naef, ‘La Guinée Equatoriale vit sous la coupe d’un dictateur sanguinaire, Tribune de Géneve, 27 February 1975. Archivo Max Liniger-Goumaz, Centro de Estudios Afro-Hispánicos, Universidad Nacional a Distancia, Madrid (hereafter AMLG), armario 1, carpeta 1969-1976, CEAH/304.4 US DoS Telegram, ‘US Opposition for Proposed Multilateral Development Bank Loan to Equatorial Guinea’, September 8, 1978, cited in Geoffrey Jensen, ‘Tyranny, Communism, and US Policy in Equatorial Guinea, 1968-1979’, Diplomatic History, 43, no. 4 (2019), 700.5 ‘Willkürherrschaft en Aequatorial-Guinea’, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 23 May 1975, 5. AMLG, armario 1, carpeta 1969-1976, CEAH/304.6 To avoid confusion between people from the countries of Equatorial Guinea, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau whilst also not overusing the awkward English construction ‘Equatoguinean’, I sometimes use the Spanish word ‘Guineano’ to refer to people from Equatorial Guinea.7 ‘Equatorial Guinea: A Question of Human Rights’, Africa Confidential, 9 July 1976), 6-7, and ‘The Cocoa Slaves of Fernando Po’, The Guardian, 21 Nov. 1976, 7. Documents on the Nigerian workers include US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 29 January 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=8026&dt=2474&dl=1345, accessed 27 September 2022.8 Jensen, ‘Tyranny’.9 Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida and Rosa María Pardo Sanz, ‘La independencia de Guinea Ecuatorial: el hundimiento de un proyecto neocolonial (septiembre de 1968 a mayo de 1969)’, Hispania LXXXII, no. 270 (2022), 201-32. On decolonization and Spain´s relationship with its former colony, see also Donato Ndongo, Historia y tragedia de Guinea Ecuatorial, 2nd ed. (Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra, 2019); Adolfo Obiang Biko, Guinea Ecuatorial: Del colonialismo español al descubrimiento del petróleo (Madrid: SIAL Casa de África, 128), 238-9; and Francisco Quintana Navarro, ‘La Guinea española y las relaciones de España con Guinea Ecuatorial. Lo que mal empieza … ’, Historia de la política exterior española en los siglos XX y XXI, vol. II, ed. J.M. Beneyto and J.C. Pereira (Madrid: Ediciones CEU, 2015), 518; 497-532, and the relevant chapters in Relaciones de España con Guinea Ecuatorial y Sahara Occidental: dos modelos de colonización y de descolonización, edited by Beatriz Fryeiro de Lara and José Luis Rodríguez Jiménez (Granada, 2015).10 Jensen, ‘Tyranny’, and Benita Sampedro Vizcaya, ‘Guinea Ecuatorial en la agenda política de los Estados Unidos’, Palabras: Revista de la Cultura y de las Ideas 2 (2010), discuss the place of Equatorial Guinea in US foreign policy during the 1970s. This article builds upon those studies by focusing on the role of Spain in the relationship between the two countries and the linkage between Spanish and Equatoguinean political developments over that decade.11 For example, Charles Powell, El amigo americano. España y Estados Unidos: de la dictadura a la democracia (Barcelona: Galaxia Gutenberg, 2011); Encarnación Lemus, Estados Unidos y la transición española, Kindle edition (Punto de Vista Editores, 2014); and Pilar Ortuño Anaya, ‘La promoción americana de la democracia y España, 1968-1976’, Baética: Estudios de arte, geografía e historia, 30 (2008), 467-86.Because archival records for this period from Spain´s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Equatorial Guinea remain inaccessible to researchers, the diplomatic documents consulted for this article come from the United States.12 Quoted in Ndongo, Historia, 187.13 For example, ‘Equatorial Guinea-Soviet Tie’, New York Times, 12 December 1968, 5, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1968/12/12/76915461.html?pageNumber=5; ‘Spain is Accused by Former Colony’, New York Times, 2 March 1969, 12, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1969/03/02/90056242.html?pageNumber=12; and ‘Spain Asks U.N. Aid in Former Colony’, New York Times, 7 March 1969, 3, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1969/03/07/79948520.html?pageNumber=3,all accessed 11 July 2022.14 See his notes in Albert William Sherer, Jr. Papers, Yale University Library Manuscripts and Archives (hereafter AWSP), MS 1487, box 2. Beginning in 1970, the ambassador to Cameroon also served as the Ambassador to Equatorial Guinea and resided in Yaoundé.15 On these events, see Álvarez Chillida and Pardo Sanz, ‘Independencia’, 21816 Secretary of State to Lomé, 8 March 1969, Telegram 036256, ‘Equatorial Guinea: Department Spokesman’, and ‘Insert for Background Notes. Equatorial Guinea’, 26 September 1968, both from AWSP, MS 1487, box 2.On the flag crisis, the coup attempt and Atanasio Ndong´s death, see Álvarez Chillida and Pardo Sanz, ‘Independencia’, 216-23; Ndongo, Historia, 151-61, 283-90, 562-3; and Obiang Biko, Guinea 251-257. Álvarez Chillida and Pardo Sanz discuss Spain´s role in the coup; Ndongo suggests US involvement too, although his evidence is circumstantial.17 Rosa Pardo, ‘EEUU y el tardofranquismo: las relaciones bilaterales durante la presidencia Nixon, 1969-1974’, Historia del Presente, 6 (2005),14, 20. On the conflict between Castiella and Carrero Blanco, see also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Weekly Summary, ‘Special Report. Equatorial Guinea: Mismated Mini-State’, 11 October 1968. CIA Records Search Tool, United States National Archives, College Park, Maryland (CREST-USNA).18 AWSP, MS 1487, box 2.19 CIA, Directorate of Intelligence (DI), Intelligence Memorandum, ‘Equatorial Guinea: Economic Chaos and the Drift to the Left’, August 1971, 7-8, CREST-USNA.20 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 25 June 1973, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=70031&dt=2472&dl=1345, accessed 19 May 2020.On France and Equatorial Guinea in the 1970s: Quintana Navarro, ‘Guinea’, 521-30; Ndongo, Historia, 290-298; Max Liniger-Goumaz, Small is Not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1989), 61, 138; and Liniger-Goumaz’s The United States, France, and Equatorial Guinea: The Dubious ‘Friendships’ (Geneva: Editions du Temps, 1997). Although the latter focuses above all on the period after Macías’s overthrow in 1979, it contains document excerpts, bibliographies and essays by the author of relevance to the earlier period too. On the fear of Macías and others that Nigeria would invade and annex Fernando Po: Ndongo, Historia, 254. The border disputes with Gabon generated many State Department cables. For example, US DoS Telegram, Libreville, 2 December 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=66000&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 24 September 2022. See also: ‘PROBLEMES FRONTALIERS GUINEE EQUATORIALE – GABON, OCTOBRE 1972’, AMLG, carpeta 1969-1976, CEAH/304.21 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 25 June 1973.22 Ndongo, Historia, 639.23 US DoS Telegram, Kampala, 19 September 1973 https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=146439&dt=2472&dl=1345; US DoS Telegram, Kampala, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=147058&dt=2472&dl=1345, both accessed 19 May 2020.24 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 25 January 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=8112&dt=2474&dl=1345 accessed 22 May 2020. Jensen, ‘Tyranny’, 715-8. On Cuban involvement in Equatorial Guinea, see also Delmas Tsafack, ‘The Cuban Presence in Equatorial Guinea from 1969 to Date: Motivations and Legacies’, conference paper, 24 May 2016, University of Cape Town, South Africa.25 Interview with Donato Ndongo, 8 July 2018, Madrid; US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 20 February 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=28868&dt=2474&dl=1345 accessed 22 May 2020. Ndongo, Historia, 177, 216-22, et al. On the exiles in general, Juan María Calvo, ‘La oposición a Macías’, http://www.asodeguesegundaetapa.org/la-oposicion-a-macias-capitulo-8-de-la-ocasion-perdida-juan-maria-calvo/ (chapter 8 of La ocasión perdida http://www.asodegue.org/hdojmc.htm, accessed 1 September, 2018); Cruz Melchor Eya Nchama, Cincuenta aniversario de la independencia de Guinea Ecuatorial. Cruz Melchor Eya Nchama conversa con Gustavo Bueno Sánchez, ed. Alberto Esteban, (Oviedo: Pentalfa, 2018); and Adolfo Obiang Biko, Guinea Ecuatorial: del colonialismo español al descubrimiento del petróleo (Madrid: Sial, 2016).26 Ndongo, Historia, 219-20.27 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 20 February 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/display-partial-records.jsp?f=4734&mtch=1&q=goeg+expells&cat=all&dt=2474&tf=X, accessed 23 December 2022.28 Ibid.29 US DoS Telegram Yaoundé, 26 July 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=143748&dt=2474&dl=1345, accessed 26 Sept 2022.30 ‘Should Equatorial Guinea be annexed?’, Nigerian Tide, 3 October. 1976, 8. AMLG, armario 1, carpeta 1966 - âout 1979, CEAH/204.31 Francisco Quintana Navarro, ‘La Guinea española y las relaciones de España con Guinea Ecuatorial. Lo que mal empieza … ’, Historia de la política exterior española en los siglos XX y XXI, vol. II, ed. Marta Hernández Ruiz (Madrid: Ediciones CEU, 2015), 518.32 Ndongo, Historia.33 Álvarez Chillida and Pardo Sanz, ‘Independencia’, 209, 217. Juan Durán-Loriga, Memorias diplomáticas (Madrid: Siddharth Mehta, 1999), 131; Ndongo, Historia, 147-51. Augustín Nze Nfumu, Macías. Verdugo o víctima (Madrid: Herrero y Asociados, 2004).34 Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 15.35 Ndongo, Historia, 202.36 On the Macías government’s initial treatment of Spanish diplomats, which the latter sometimes found surreal, see the partially fictionalized account in Fernando Morán, El día en que … (Madrid: Alfaguara, 1997), 135-73. Morán, a distinguished diplomat who would become the Director General for Africa and Continental Asia at the Foreign Ministry and then PSOE leader Felipe González´s first foreign minister, reflects on Equatorial Guinea in Una política exterior para España (Barcelona: Planeta, 1980), 371-79, and El día, 135-98.37 Ndongo, Historia, 149.38 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 5 October 1976, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=311661&dt=2082&dl=1345 accessed 23 December 2022. On Pan de Soraluce as chargé in 1969, Javier Martínez Alcázar, ‘La crisis de marzo 1969 en Guinea Ecuatorial’, https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1300658, accessed 23 December 2022.39 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 9 October 1975, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289249&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022.40 On Carrero’s sabotaging of the new state’s relations with Spain, Quintana Navarro, ‘Guinea’, 520. On US awareness that the situation in Guinea weakened Castiella’s position then, Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 14. On the disrespectful behavior of Spanish settlers toward Guineanos after independence, Ndongo, Historia, 150.41 For an overview of the historical and colonial context of African diplomatic culture, see Yoland K. Spies, ‘African Diplomacy’, Wiley Online Library, 27 February 2018, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118885154.dipl0005, accessed 27 Sept 2022,42 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 11 March 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=226826&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 1 May 2023.43 The full text of the letter is in US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 9 March 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=214914&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 27 April 2023. Spiro comments on the letter in US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 9 March 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=214918&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 27 April 2023. On the crisis see also Nze Nfumu, Macías, 201-202 and Ndongo, Historia, 288-289. On the 1971 murder at the embassy, see Mark Asquino, Spanish Connections: My Diplomatic Journey from Venezuela to Equatorial Guinea (Bloomington: Xlibris, 2023), 34-42.44 US DoS Telegram, Washington, 14 March 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=216286&dt=2082&dl=1345, accesssed 27 April 2023.45 Equatorial Guinea: The Forgotten Dictatorship (London: Anti-Slavery Society, 1976), 35. Yaoundé, 9 March 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=214918&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 27 April 2023.46 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 23 October 1974, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=220428&dt=2474&dl=1345, accessed 27 April 2023.47 Ndongo, 147-51 and Nze Nfumu, Macías. The latter is a former protocol officer for the government of Macías, who later imprisoned him for a time, and for Macías’s successor Obiang.48 Jensen, ‘Tyranny’.49 Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 38-9. Lemus, Estados Unidos.50 Powell, Amigo, 200.51 Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), Amazon Kindle, loc 5985. Victor Gavin, ‘The Nixon and Ford Administrations and the Future of Post-Franco Spain (1970-6)’, International History Review 38, n. 5 (2016), 930-42.. Álvaro de Cózar and Gonzalo Cabeza, ‘Los audios de Nixon’, El País, 9 June 2020. https://elpais.com/espana/2020-06-08/los-secretos-sobre-el-final-de-franco-que-ocultan-las-cintas-de-nixon.html, accessed 14 June 2020.52 CIA, Staff Notes, ‘Western Europe – Canada – International Organizations, Annex’, Gerald Ford Library (hereafter GFL), Dale Van Atta Papers, box 14.53 Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 36-8.54 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 28 December 1979. https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=78901&dt=2776&dl=2169, accessed 23 December 2022. The image of Equatorial Guinea as a ‘microcosm of the world political struggle’ has reemerged recently, this time with a primary focus on the US-Chinese rivalry there. See Enrique Martino, ‘The Teodorín Situation (Part II): The Geopolitics of China and the US in the Gulf of Guinea´, Comillas Journal of International Relations 27 (2023), 25-46, https://revistas.comillas.edu/index.php/internationalrelations/article/view/20596, accessed 27 July 2023.55 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 6 October 1975, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280979&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022. See also Ndongo, Historia, 252.56 Ndongo, Historia, 252, attributes the expulsion of the Equatoguinean ambassador to criticism of the ETA and FRAP executions. Citing Spanish informants in Douala, the nonresident US ambassador to Equatorial Guinea, Herbert Spiro, described it as a reaction to Macías’s declaration of Casso García as persona non grata. US DoS, Douala, 6 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280979&dt=2476&dl=1345 accessed 17 June 2020. Also US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 14 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289220&dt=2476&dl=1345 accessed 18 June 2020. ETA, or ‘Euskadi Ta Askatasuna’, was a Basque terrorist organization. FRAP (Frente Revolucionario Antifascista y Patriota) was a radical left-wing anti-Francoist group.57 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 9 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289256&dt=2476&dl=1345 accessed 17 June 2020.58 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 9 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289249&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 27 September 2022.59 US DoS Telegram, Douala, 9 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289249&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 27 September 2022.60 Lemus, Estados, 11.61 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 14 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289220&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 27 September 2022.62 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 14 October 1975, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=289220&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 27 Sept 2022. On the Iberia flight to Malabo, see also Quintana Navarra, ‘Guinea’, 521.63 Gavin, ‘Nixon’, 933-4.64 Larres, Uncertain. Pilar Ortuño Anaya, ‘La promoción americana de la democracia y España, 1968-1976’, Baetica. Estudios de Arte, Geografía e Historia 30 (2008), 470.65 Quoted in Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 29.66 Gavin, ‘Nixon’.67 Interview with Celestino Okenve, 14 July 2018, Madrid. Okenve was the son of a high military official under Macías who ended up part of the opposition in Spain. On the occupation of the embassy, see also Ndongo, Historia, 254.68 Pardo, ‘EEUU’, 34.69 Tamar Groves, et al., Social Movements and the Spanish Transition (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2017), 132.70 On García-Trevijano, see Ndongo, Historia, 168-173, 256-7, 631; Obiang Biko, Guinea, 240-1, 267-8; Nze Nfumu, Macías, 52-54; and Álvarez Chillida and Pardo Sanz, ‘Independencia’, 207-8, et al.71 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 25 September 1976, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=343065&dt=2082&dl=1345 accessed 27 June 2020.72 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 5 October 1976, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=311661&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022.73 For example, US DoS Telegram, New York, 21 March 1975. https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=207379&dt=2476&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022.74 Interview with Donato Ndongo, 8 July 2018, Madrid. Ndongo writes about the dossier, without mentioning his direct role in its distribution, in Historia, 256, 664-5. On the exile political movements see also Juan María Calvo, ‘La oposición a Macías’, http://www.asodeguesegundaetapa.org/la-oposicion-a-macias-capitulo-8-de-la-ocasion-perdida-juan-maria-calvo/, accessed 1 September 2018.75 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 5 October 1976, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=311661&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022. Eaton ran the US Embassy in Madrid between the departure of Ambassador Horacio Rivera in November 1974 and the arrival of his successor, Wells Stabler, in February.76 US DoS Telegram, Washington, 8 October 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=314303&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022.77 ‘Guinea Ecuatorial no es “Materia Reservada” desde octubre de 1976’, Espacios Europeos, 10 July 2013, https://espacioseuropeos.com/2013/07/guinea-ecuatorial-no-es-materia-reservada-desde-octubre-de-1976/, accessed 23 December 2022.78 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 2 November 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280887&dt=2082&dl=1345; US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 4 November 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280895&dt=2082&dl=1345, both accessed 23 December 2022.79 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 18 November 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280948&dt=2082&dl=1345; ibid., 19 November 1976, Yaoundé, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280956&dt=2082&dl=1345, both accessed 23 December 2022.80 Quoted in US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 19 November 1976, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=280957&dt=2082&dl=1345, accessed 23 December 2022.81 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 16 March 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=56479&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022. The CIA also took note of the Spanish evacuation plans. ‘National Intelligence Daily Cable’, 13 October 1977, CREST-USNA.82 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 19 March 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=60045&dt=2532&dl=1629; ibid., Madrid, 23 March 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=63102&dt=2532&dl=1629, both accessed 23 December 2022. On how the transition from Ford to Carter affected U.S. policy toward Equatorial Guinea, see Jensen, “Tyranny”.83 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 21 March 1977. https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=61056&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022.84 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 23 March 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=63102&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022.85 Jensen, ‘Tyranny’, 712-713.86 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 26 September 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=222571&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022.87 US DoS Telegram, Madrid 7 October 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=232949&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022.88 Ibid.89 ‘Nguema accuses Spain’, Nigerian Standard, 23 October 1977, 2. AMLG, armario 1, carpeta 1966-âout 1979, CEAH/204.90 US DoS Telegram, Washington, 18 October 1977, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=242584&dt=2532&dl=1629, accessed 23 December 2022.91 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 21 January 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=16839&dt=2694&dl=2009 accessed 23 December 2022.92 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 19 January 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=14194&dt=2694&dl=2009, accessed 23 December 2022.93 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 21 January 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=16839&dt=2694&dl=2009, accessed 23 December 2022.94 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 21 February 78, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=42610&dt=2694&dl=2009, accessed 23 December 2022.95 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 12 May 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=120916&dt=2694&dl=2009. Also, US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 21 January 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=16839&dt=2694&dl=2009, both accessed 23 December 2022.96 Jensen, ‘Tyranny’, 719-23.97 US DoS Telegram, Yaoundé, 21 January 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=16839&dt=2694&dl=2009, accessed 23 December 2022.98 Quintana Navarro, ‘Guinea’, 52199 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 6 November 1978, http://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=275221&dt=2694&dl=2009, accessed 23 December 2022.100 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 1 May 1979, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=237472&dt=2776&dl=2169, accessed 23 December 2022.101 US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 8 August 1979, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=52176&dt=2776&dl=2169; US DoS Telegram, Madrid, 8 August 1979, https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=52177&dt=2776&dl=2169, both accessed 23 December 2022; Jensen, ‘Tyranny’, 723-4. On the coup see also Ndongo, Historia, 306-20.102 Recorded interview by Juan Aranzadi and Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida with Luis Báguena (former head of the Spanish Civil Guard in Equatorial Guinea), 5 June 2017, Madrid.103 For Equatorial Guinean perspectives, see Ndongo, Historia; Obiang Biko, Guinea; Juan Riochí Siafá, La historia de Guinea Ecuatorial a través de sus protagonistas (Madrid: Diwan, 2020); and Nze Nfumu, Macías.Additional informationFundingThis work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación [PID2020-115502GB-100].
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