The Prince’s Prosthetic Body: Orthopedic Armor and Material Self-Fashioning in Sixteenth-Century Europe
2023; College Art Association; Volume: 105; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00043079.2023.2176666
ISSN1559-6478
Autores Tópico(s)Martial Arts: Techniques, Psychology, and Education
ResumoAbstractCommonly seen to display military prowess or chivalric virtue, parade armor of the sixteenth century here is considered for its impact on the wearer’s own physiology and psychology. Through juxtaposing the ergonomic features of muscle cuirasses and children’s harnesses with courtly etiquette rules, humanist educational regimes, and orthopedic devices in medicine, this paper reveals armor’s stakes in fashioning the princely body by means of physical discipline rather than visual representation. Plate armor, by “correcting” posture and mannering comportment, aided in molding an exemplary disposition expected to incite subjects to imitation. NotesI am sincerely grateful to Tamara Golan, Stephanie Luther, and Andrew Sears for their invaluable feedback to, and editing of, my article throughout its long development. My doctoral supervisors Carolin Behrmann and Horst Bredekamp read various versions and provided critical advice and new perspectives along the way. Conversations with Diane Bodart helped set the stage for key arguments. I benefited significantly from the scholarly esprit de corps of the research group “Nomos of Images” at the Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florence, where this article was largely written. Some revisions and fine-tuning were completed during my tenure as a “Bilderfahrzeuge” research associate at the Warburg Institute, and in my current position at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität’s Institute of Art History in Munich. I am indebted to mentors and colleagues at these institutions, whose input and encouragement carried me across the finish line. Early portions of this essay were presented at the Musée de l’Armée in Paris at the conference “Transformer le corps masculin” (2015), organized by Juliette Allix and Anne-Valérie Dulac; at the University of Kyoto in a colloquium (2016) of Atsushi Okada (who kindly translated my talk into Japanese); and at the Zentralinstitut in Munich, at the workshop “Prosthesis in Early Modern Art and Science” (2019), organized by Ulrich Pfisterer, Marisa Mandabach, and Bernhard Seidler. I am grateful for these invitations and for the challenging, diverse, and rich viewpoints that emerged from such forums. Finally, I would like to thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their keen reading and support of this text, as well as the editorial team of The Art Bulletin for their patient support.Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are mine.1 For a biographical overview, see Juan Riera Palmero, “Valverde de Amusco, Juan,” in Diccionario Biográfico Electrónico, https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/4945/juan-valverde-de-amusco; Andrea Carlino, “Tre Piste per la Anatomia di Juan de Valverde,” Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome, Italie et Méditerranée, 114 (2002): 513–41; Bjørn Okholm Skaarup, Anatomy and Anatomists in Early Modern Spain (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2015), 233–46. On the question of plagiarism, see Arthur William Meyer and Sheldon K. Wirt, “The Amuscan Illustrations,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 14 (1943): 667–87; Cynthia Klestinec, “Juan Valverde de (H)Amusco and Print Culture: The Editorial Apparatus in Vernacular Anatomy Texts,” in Zergliederungen: Anatomie und Wahrnehmung in der Frühen Neuzeit, ed. Albert Schirrmeister = Zeitsprünge 9 (2005): 78–94.2 Translation after K. B. Roberts and J. D. W. Tomlinson, The Fabric of the Body: European Traditions of Anatomical Illustration (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 211 / Juan Valverde de Amusco, Historia de la Composicion del Cuerpo Humano (Rome: Antonio Salamanca and Antonio Lafreri, 1556), [fol. 4r].3 Comprehensively, cf. Diego Suárez Quevedo, “Arte-Ciencia (Anatomía) en el Renacimiento Español: La Obra de Juan Valverde de Amusco y su Clasicismo,” in Actas del X Congreso del CEHA, Los Clasicismos en el Arte Español (Madrid: UNED, 1994), 475–86.4 See Samuel Y. Edgerton, Pictures and Punishment: Art and Criminal Prosecution During the Florentine Renaissance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 216–219. For a critical review of the methodological stakes of “anxiety,” see Patricia Simons, The Sex of Men in Premodern Europe: A Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 4, 17, 73–78.5 For the shifts in anatomical representation entailed by the introduction of copperplate engraving, see Martin Kemp, “‘The Mark of Truth’: Looking and Learning in some Anatomical Illustrations from the Renaissance and Eighteenth Century,” in Medicine and the Five Senses, eds. William Frederick Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 85–121, esp. 101.6 On sixteenth-century techniques of decoration on arms and armor, see Fabian Brenker, “A Collaborative Work: The Production of Armour and its Accoutrements,” in Iron Men: Mode in Stahl / Fashion in Steel, ed. Stefan Krause, exh. cat. (Cologne: Walther König, 2022), 89–101; and Donald La Rocca, How to Read European Armor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 97–137. For a comprehensive overview of contemporary engraving and etching techniques, see Ad Stijnman, Engraving and Etching, 1400–2000: A History of the Development of Manual Intaglio Printmaking Processes (London: Archetype, 2012), 24–57. On Hopfer’s body of work and the role of armor in the ‘invention’ of etching, see Christof Metzger, “The Iron Age: The Beginnings of Etching about 1500,” in The Renaissance of Etching, eds. Catherine Jenkins, Nadine M. Orenstein, and Freyda Spira, exh. cat. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), 25–31; and David Landau and Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, 1470–1550 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 323–32. For the technological interplay of arms and prints, see also James Clifton, “‘To showe to posteritie the manner of souldiers apparel’: Arms and Armor in European Prints,” in Knights in Shining Armor: Myth and Reality, 1450–1650, ed. Ida Sikević (Piermont, NH: Bunker Hill Publishing, 2006), 56–73, esp. 56.7 For a biographical and medical historical overview, see Andrew Cunningham, The Anatomical Renaissance: The Resurrection of the Anatomical Projects of the Ancients (Adlershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1997), 143–66; and Garabed Eknoyan and Natale G. De Santo, “Realdo Colombo (1516–1559): A Reappraisal,” American Journal of Nephrology 17 (1997): 261–68.8 On this history, see Amanda Dawn Taylor, “Fabricating the Martial Body: Anatomy, Affect, and Armor in Early Modern England and Italy” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2017), 47f. On the military self-fashioning of humanist physicians, see Jennifer Feather, Writing Combat and the Self in Early Modern English Literature: The Pen and the Sword (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 25f.9 For a media theoretical analysis, see Rose Marie San Juan, “Restoration and Translation in Juan de Valverde’s ‘Historia de la Composision del Cuerpo Humano,’” in The Virtual Tourist in Renaissance Rome: Printing and Collecting the Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae, ed. Rebecca Zorach (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 53–61, esp. 58.10 See Enrique Fernandez, Anxieties of Interiority and Dissection in Early Modern Spain (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).11 For armor as composite assemblage, see Carolyn Springer, Armour and Masculinity in the Italian Renaissance (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), 4f.; and Taylor, “Fabricating the Martial Body,” 38–47.12 On the transition from a composite to a sculptural fashioning of armor, see Donald La Rocca, “Monsters, Heroes, and Fools: A Survey of Embossed Armor in Germany and Austria, ca. 1475–ca. 1575,” in A Farewell to Arms: Studies on the History of Arms and Armour, eds. Gert Groenendijk et al. (Delft, the Netherlands: Legermuseum, 2004), 34–55, esp. 36ff.13 Juan Valverde de Amusco, Anatomia del Corpo Humano (Rome: Antonio Salamanca and Antonio Lafreri, 1560), [fol. 2v].14 On fifteenth-century prop armor, see Philine Helas, Lebende Bilder in der Italienischen Festkultur des 15. Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Akademie, 1999), 59ff., 139ff. For painted and sculpted representations, see Matthias Pfaffenbichler, “Das Fortleben der Antiken Schutzbewaffnung in der Florentiner Kunst der Frührenaissance,” in Fremde Zeiten: Festschrift für Jürgen Borchhardt, eds. Fritz Blakolmer et al. (Vienna: Phoibos, 1996), 363–76; see also Stuart W. Pyhrr and José-A. Godoy, “Introduction,” in Heroic Armor of the Italian Renaissance: Filippo Negroli and his Contemporaries, eds. Stuart W. Pyhrr and José-A. Godoy, exh. cat. (New York: Abrams, 1998), 1–24, esp. 7–15.15 On these terms, see La Rocca, How to Read, 113–118; and Pyhrr and Godoy, “Introduction,” 2. For an overview cf. also Jonathan Tavares, “The All’Antica Fashion: Ancient Armour Reborn and Reimagined, c. 1470–1600,” in Krause, Iron Men, 155–67.16 This possibly invented account was introduced by Giorgio Vasari, Le Vite de’ piú Eccellenti Architetti, Pittori, et Scultori Italiani, da Cimabue insino a’ Tempi nostri: Nell’Edizione per i Tipi di Lorenzo Torrentino, Firenze 1550, ed. Luciano Bellosi and Aldo Rossi (Turin: Einaudi, 1986), 812. For a historical overview of the Negroli workshop cf. Silvio Leydi, “A History of the Negroli Family,” in Pyhrr and Godoy, Heroic Armor, 37–60.17 This ensemble is donned by Caligula in one of the Eleven Caesars copied by Bernardino Campi (1522–1591) after the lost series painted by Titian (ca. 1488–1576) for Federico II Gonzaga (1500–1540); see Pyhrr and Godoy, Heroic Armor, no. 27, 150ff.18 Ibid., no. 55, 285–289; see also Mario Scalini, Armature all’Eroica dei Negroli (Florence: Museo Nazionale del Bargello, 1987), 22–27.19 For this statue, see Birgit Laschke, Fra Giovan Angelo da Montorsoli: Ein Florentiner Bildhauerdes 16. Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Gebrüder Mann, 1993), 39ff., 160, no. 5; and for armor’s role in “disguising” the represented person, see Herbert Keutner, “Über die Entstehung und die Formen des Standbildes im Cinquecento,” Münchner Jahrbuch der Bildenden Kunst 7 (1956): 138–68, esp. 148.20 On “social iconography,” see Simons, The Sex of Men, 3; 293f.21 For the shaping of a “median” body through sculpture, see Glenn Harcourt, “Andreas Vesalius and the Anatomy of Antique Sculpture,” Representations 17 (1987): 28–61.22 For a biographical overview, see Adriano Prosperi, “Campi, Bartolomeo,” in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, vol. 17 (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1974), 92–96.23 For the following in general, see Springer, Armour and Masculinity, 85–89; Pyhrr and Godoy, Heroic Armor, no. 54, 278–84; and John F. Hayward, “The Revival of Roman Armour in the Renaissance,” in Art, Arms, and Armour: An International Anthology, ed. Robert Held, vol. 1, 1979–1980 (Chiasso, Italy: Acquafresca Editrice, 1979), 144–63, esp. 157.24 For Herculean motifs and their allegorical meaning, see Amadeo Quondam, Cavallo e Cavaliere: L’Armatura come Seconda Pelle del Gentiluomo Moderno (Rome: Donzelli, 2003), 120–86; for their apotropaic connotations, see Victor I. Stoichita, “‘La Seconde Peau’: Quelques Considérations sur le Symbolisme des Armures au XVIe Siècle,” Micrologus 20 (2012): 451–63, esp. 453–56; and Josiane Rieu, “La Décoration des Armures au XVIe Siècle ou le Corps du Prince,” in L’Homme de Guerre au XVIe Siècle, eds. Gabriel-André Pérouse, André Thierry, and André Tournon (Saint-Étienne, France: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne, 1992), 365–75, esp. 368f.25 On the manufacturing of “aristophilic” desirability in the fifteenth century, see Timothy McCall, Brilliant Bodies: Fashioning Courtly Men in Early Renaissance Italy (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2022), esp. 8ff.; and on sixteenth-century armor as a neo-feudal “wish-image,” see Gloria Kury, “’Glancing Surfaces’: Hilliard, Armour, and the Italian Model,” in Albion’s Classicism: The Visual Arts in Britain, 1550–1660, ed. Lucy Gent (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 395–426, esp. 408–13.26 Translated after Pyhrr and Godoy, Heroic Armor, no. 54, 280 / “BARTHOLOMEVS CAMPI AVRIFEX TOTIVS OPERIS ARTIFEX QUOD ANNO INTEGRO INDIGEBAT PRINCIPIS SVI NVTVI OBTEMPERANS GEMINATO MENSE PERFECIT.”27 Ibid., 283. For the documentation of the accompanying ceremony, see James Dennistoun, Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino: Illustrating the Arms, Arts and Literature of Italy, 1440–1630, vol. 3 (London: Longman, 1851), 92f. Later the ensemble entered the Spanish collections under unknown circumstances; for a discussion of possible scenarios, see Almudena Pérez de Tudela, “I Doni dei Della Rovere per Filippo II,” in L’Arte del Dono: Scambi Artistici e Diplomazia tra Italia e Spagna, 1550–1650, eds. Marieke von Bernstorff and Susanne Kubersky-Piredda (Milan: Silvana, 2013), 89–102, esp. 89ff.; and Pyhrr and Godoy, Heroic Armor, no. 54, 281ff.28 On Guidobaldo’s military misfortune, see Sebastian Becker, Dynastische Politik und Legitimationsstrategien der della Rovere: Potenziale und Grenzen der Herzöge von Urbino (1508–1631) (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2015), 44–45; and Dennistoun, Memoirs of the Dukes, 97.29 On the Duke’s strained relationship with his father and his sexual assertion through portraiture, see Patricia Simons, “Alert and Erect: Masculinity in Some Italian Renaissance Portraits of Fathers and Sons,” in Gender Rhetorics: Postures of Dominance and Submission in History, ed. Richard C. Trexler (Binghamton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1994), 163–86, esp. 171–75; and for the depicted armor, Springer, Armour and Masculinity, 73–79. On the Duke’s artistic patronage, see Franco Piperno, L’Immagine del Duca: Musica e Spettacolo alla Corte di Guidubaldo II Duca d’Urbino (Florence: Olschki, 2001); and Becker, Dynastische Politik, 74f.; 275–95; 317–27.30 See Daniel Jaquet, “Wearing Armour I: A Present-Day Account,” and Stefan Krause, “Wearing Armour II: Historical Sources,” in Krause, Iron Men, 129–36.31 See Stefan Krause, “A Man in Armour: Fashionably Dressed, Somewhat Genderfluid,” in Krause, Iron Men, 27–40, esp. 30ff.; and Angus Patterson, Fashion and Armour in Renaissance Europe: Proud Looks and Brave Attire (London: V&A Publishing, 2009), 23–26.32 Giovanni Pietro Panigarola to Galeazzo Maria Sforza, 27 April 1466, in Emilio Motta, “Armaiuoli Milanesi nel Periodo Visconteo-Sforzesco,” Archivio Storico Lombardo 41 (1914), 187–232, here no. 86, 210. On this episode, see Marina Belozerskaya, Luxury Arts of the Renaissance (London: Thames and Hudson, 2005), 178; and Bruno Thomas and Ortwin Gamber, “Die Mailänder Plattnerkunst,” in Bruno Thomas, Gesammelte Schriften zur Historischen Waffenkunde, vol. 2 (Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1977), 971–1098, 1563–79, here 993.33 Niccolò Machiavelli, Art of War, trans. Christopher Lynch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), book 2, 43f.34 See Daniel Jaquet, “Les Apports de la Cinésiologie dans l’Approche Expérimentale Pluridisciplinaire de l’Étude du Geste Historique: L’Étude de Cas de l’Impact du Port de l’Armure sur le Comportement Moteur,” in Expérimenter le Maniement des Armes à la Fin du Moyen Âge: Experimente zur Waffenhandhabung im Spätmittelalter, eds. Daniel Jaquet and Nicolas Baptiste (Basel, Switzerland: Schwabe, 2016), 87–98, esp. 95ff.35 On this, see Rosalba Ciranni, Valentina Giuffra, and Gino Fornaciari, “’Le Donne, I Cavalieri, L’Arme, Gli Amori, Le Cortesie, L’Audaci Imprese Io Canto . . .’: Ergonomia e Paleopatologia del Principe Pandolfo III Malatesta,” Medicina nei Secoli 15, no. 3 (2003): 581–94, esp. 590–93; and briefly McCall, Brilliant Bodies, 141f.36 See Antonio Fornaciari et al., “Gout in Duke Federico of Montefeltro (1422–1482): A New Pearl of the Italian Renaissance,” Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 36 (2018): 15–20, esp. 19.37 Simons centers the interplay of vernacular objects with language in shaping “lived” metaphors, and thus favors a semiotic notion of materiality and embodiment: see Simons, The Sex of Men, 17ff.; 290–93.38 On the phenotypic variability of the skeleton and the methodological implications for historical research, see Joanna R. Sofaer, The Body as Material Culture: A Theoretical Osteoarchaeology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 70–76.39 For an introduction, see Giuseppe di Pellegrino and Elisabetta Làdavas, “Peripersonal Space in the Brain,” Neuropsychologia 66 (2015): 126–133. On the neurological integration of clothes and prostheses, see Nicholas P. Holmes and Charles Spence, “Beyond the Body Schema: Visual, Prosthetic, and Technological Contributions to Bodily Perception and Awareness,” in Human Body Perception from the Inside Out, eds. Günther Knoblich et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 15–64, esp. 33–42.40 On the social dimension of space, see Claudio Brozzoli et al., “A Shared Representation of the Space Near Oneself and Others in the Human Premotor Cortex,” Current Biology 23 (2013): 1764–68.41 For an overview, see Hajo Adam and Adam D. Galinsky, “Enclothed Cognition,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48, no. 4 (2012): 918–25; and for an art historical perspective, John Michael Krois, “Bildkörper und Körperschema,” in Bildkörper und Körperschema: Aufsätze zur Verkörperungstheorie Ikonischer Formen, eds. Horst Bredekamp and Marion Lauschke (Berlin: Akademie, 2011), 252–71.42 This controversial effect was first described by Leonard Berkowitz and Anthony LePage; see “Weapons as Aggression-Eliciting Stimuli,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7, no. 2 (1967): 202–07; and for the social psychology of uniforms cf. Nathan Joseph, Uniforms and Nonuniforms: Communication through Clothing (New York: Greenwood, 1986), 65–84.43 See Robert Jones, Bloodied Banners: Martial Display on the Medieval Battlefield (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2010), 99ff. On evolutionary biology, see ibid., 5–9. On posturing as aggression response, see also Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (New York: Back Bay Books, 1996), 8–15.44 For this and animal symbolism, see Jones, Bloodied Banners, 103–08.45 On group psychological effects, see ibid., 4, 77f.46 See Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 1–9.47 Marsilio Ficino, Marsilio Ficino’s Commentary on Plato’s “Symposium,” trans. Sears Jayne (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1944), speech 5, chapter 1, 64/164. On beauty and the ideal proportions of the body, see chapters 6–7, 70–73/173–76.48 See Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, trans. George Bull (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1967), book 1, chapter 20, 61.49 Ibid., book 2, chapter 17, 124.50 Ibid., chapter 27, 136. For Castiglione’s courtly etiquette as social “prosthesis,” see also Elizabeth B. Bearden, Monstrous Kinds: Body, Space, and Narrative in Renaissance Representations of Disability (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2019), 54–59.51 On fifteenth-century health literature, see Marilyn Nicoud, Les Régimes de Sainté au Moyen Âge: Naissance et Diffusion d’une Écriture Médicale en Italie et en France (XIIIe–XVe Siècle) (Rome: École Française de Rome, 2007), 339–95.52 See Juan Valverde de Amusco, De Animi et Corporis Sanitate Tuenda Libellus (Paris: Charles Estienne, 1552), 105–19.53 On the reconceptualization of cosmetics, see Mariacarla Gadebusch Bondio, Medizinische Ästhetik: Kosmetik und Plastische Chirurgie zwischen Antike und Früher Neuzeit (Munich: Fink, 2005). The growing aesthetic consciousness of the ruler and the expectation that he serve as exemplum to his subjects played a key role in promoting plastic surgery: see Valeria Finucci, The Prince’s Body: Vincenzo Gonzaga and Renaissance Medicine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 4, 64–73.54 For the guiding principles of this regimen, see Jakob Wimpfeling, “Agatharchia,” in Bruno Singer, Die Fürstenspiegel in Deutschland im Zeitalter des Humanismus und der Reformation (Munich: Fink, 1981), 173–249, here [nos. 4–12], 231–37.55 Ibid., [no. 6], 233: “Egregia etenim principis opera et virtutum exempla longe magis provocant subditos ad earum imitationem quam imperia quaevis aut rigidiora mandata.”56 On the evolution of the body politic metaphor, see Paul Archambault, “The Analogy of the ‘Body’ in Renaissance Political Literature,” Bibliothèque d’Humanisme et Renaissance 29 (1967): 21–53.57 On the counseling of doctors, see Rocío G. Sumillera, “Political Medicine in Early Modern Spain, or How Physicians Counsel the King,” Sixteenth Century Journal 51 (2020): 419–43; and Jacob Soll, “Healing the Body Politic: French Royal Doctors, History, and the Birth of a Nation, 1560–1634,” Renaissance Quarterly 55 (2002): 1259–86.58 Jerónimo Merola, Republica Original Sacada del Cuerpo Humano (Barcelona: Pedro Malo, 1587), book 1, chapter 1, fol. 2r–v. On the medical reframing of the body metaphor in Spanish literature, see Miguel Vicente Pedraz, “El Cuerpo de la República: La Metáfora Organicista en Tres Discursos Médicos del Siglo de Oro Español,” Brocar 40 (2016): 43–62, esp. 50–55. For a summary and critical exploration, see Ronald W. Truman, Spanish Treatises on Government, Society and Religion in the Time of Philip II: The “De Regimine Principum” and Associated Traditions (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1999), 200–20.59 See Merola, Republica Original Sacada, book 1, chapter 25, fol. 122r; and Truman, Spanish Treatises, 206f.60 See Erasmus of Rotterdam, The Manual of the Christian Knight (London: Morrison & Gibb, 1905), 70ff. On the elaboration of the armatura Dei trope in the sixteenth century cf. Naïma Ghermani, Le Prince et son Portrait: Incarner le Pouvoir dans l’Allemagne du XVIe Siècle (Rennes, France: PUR, 2009), 249–52.61 See Erasmus, The Christian Knight, 81–88, esp. 86f.62 On the interplay of body and soul in humanist education, see Hans-Ulrich Musolff, Erziehung und Bildung in der Renaissance: Von Vergerio bis Montaigne (Cologne: Böhlau, 1997), 69–85; on the key role of physical exercise, see Romana Sammern, “Sport und Wettkampf,” in Körperbilder der Macht, 1300–1800: Beiträge zu einer Ikonographie des Politischen in Aktion, eds. Jörge Bellin and Ulrich Pfisterer (Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2022), 389–400, esp. 390–94.63 Erasmus of Rotterdam, “On Education for Children / De Pueris Instituendis,” in The Erasmus Reader, ed. Erika Rummel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 65–100, at 67f.64 For a contextualization, see Georges Vigarello, “The Upward Training of the Body from the Age of Chivalry to Courtly Civility,” in Fragments for a History of the Human Body, ed. Michel Feher, vol. 2 (New York: Zone Books, 1989), 148–99, esp. 171.65 For metallurgical metaphors of the body and conception, see Frits Scholten, “Bronze, The Mythology of a Metal,” in Bronze: The Power of Life and Death, ed. Martina Droth, exh. cat. (Leeds, UK: Henry Moore Institute, 2005), 20–35, 24ff.; and Vigarello, “The Upward Training,” 166–67, 171. On the medical history of the notion of “wax-like” children, see Susan R. Holman, “Molded as Wax: Formation and Feeding of the Ancient Newborn,” Helios 24 (1997): 77–95. On swaddling as “fashioning” of the body, see Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, 2f.66 On this band, see Marta Ajmar-Wollheim and Flora Dennis, eds., At Home in Renaissance Italy, exh. cat. (London: V&A Publishing, 2006), no. 162, 362; and on decorative overlaps with armor, Patterson, Fashion and Armour, 40.67 On structured clothing in childhood, see Sarah A. Bendall, Shaping Femininity: Foundation Garments, the Body and Women in Early Modern England (London: Bloomsbury, 2022), 154ff.68 Erasmus of Rotterdam, “On Good Manners / De Civilitate,” in Rummel, The Erasmus Reader, 101–21, at 102.69 On the economy of expression, see ibid., 117f.; and on laughter, ibid., 104f.70 Ibid., 117. Proteus also embodies the passions in Erasmus; see Erasmus, The Christian Knight, 102.71 Erasmus, “On Good Manners,” 106. For the stylization of movement cf. ibid., 107f.72 Ibid., 103.73 For a contextualization, see Ruth Mazo Karras, From Boys to Men: Formations of Masculinity in Late Medieval Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 36–41, 44–47.74 See Enea Silvio Piccolomini, “De Liberorum Educatione / The Education of Boys,” in Humanist Educational Treatises, ed. and trans. Craig W. Kallendorf (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 126–59, here chapter 12, 139ff. On the principle of decorum, see chapters 11–12, 138–41; and on orthopedic effects of “coarse” clothing, see esp. 139.75 On these principles, see Leon Battista Alberti, On Painting, trans. Rocco Sinisgalli (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), book 2, chapter 36, 56f.; and chapter 41, 61f.76 Ibid., chapter 40, 61.77 Ibid. On artistic discourses of physiognomy and appropriateness, see esp. Diane Bodart, Pouvoirs du Portrait sous les Habsbourg d’Espagne (Paris: CTHS / INHA, 2011), 120–28; 132–39.78 Pier Paolo Vergerio, “De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Adulescentiae Studiis Liber / The Character and Studies Befitting a Free-Born Youth,” in Kallendorf, Humanist Educational Treatises, 2–91, at 13.79 For a contextualization, see Thomas Greene, “The Flexibility of the Self in Renaissance Literature,” in The Disciplines of Criticism: Essays in Literary Theory, Interpretation, and History, eds. Peter Demetz, Thomas Greene, and Lowry Nelson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 241–64, esp. 249. On early modern notions of ethical reflection as opposed to modern reflexivity, see Debora Shuger, “The ‘I’ of the Beholder: Renaissance Mirrors and the Reflexive Mind,” in Renaissance Culture and the Everyday, eds. Patricia Fumerton and Simon Hunt (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 21–41, esp. 34, 37.80 On the use of artworks as means of corrective mirroring, see Stefano G. Casu, “Speculum Principis: Notes on two Plaquettes by Filarete,” The Medal 66 (2015): 38–49. For the Julius Caesar plaquette, see Giuseppe Toderi and Fiorenza Vannel, Placchette nel Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Secoli XV–XVIII (Florence: S.P.E.S., 1996), no. 103, 62f. On the interplay of literary and pictorial exempla, see also Johannes von Müller, Herrscherbild und Fürstenspiegel: Eine Ikonische Politologie (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2020), 103f. The ethical dimension of mirrors, in turn, prefigures their critical use in examining a painting’s quality: see Alberti, On Painting, book 2, chapter 46, 69f.81 For a discussion of this object, see Tim Shephard, “A Mirror for Princes: The Ferrarese Mirror Frame in the V&A and the Instruction of Heirs,” Journal of Design History 26, no. 1 (2013): 104–14.82 On these and other optical effects, see Jones, Bloodied Banners, 109f.83 See McCall, Brilliant Bodies, 3–10, 29–33. Similarly, on the body’s luminous dematerialization in Elizabethan armor and the underlying feudal protocols, see Kury, “Glancing Surfaces,” 405–14, 420.84 See Diane H. Bodart, “Le Prince Miroir: Métaphore Optique du Corps Politique,” in Le Miroir et l’Espace duPrince dans l’Art Italien de la Renaissance, ed. Philippe Morel (Tours, France: PUFR, 2012), 123–42, esp. 124f., 130–36.85 Vergerio, “De Ingenuis Moribus,” 75.86 See Vigarello, “The Upward Training,” 149ff.87 For armor in fifteenth-century fashion and body culture, see McCall, Brilliant Bodies, 89–96.88 Comprehensively, on the genealogy of structured womenswear, see Bendall, Shaping Femininity, 28–37; and on its “imprint” on gendered body norms, see ibid., 65–72. More briefly, cf. also Norah Waugh, Corsets and Crinolines (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1954), 17–19, 22; as well as Vigarello, “The Upward Training,” 154f., 173ff.89 For a record of relevant objects and their much-debated interpretation, see Denis Bruna and Sophie Vesin, “The Enigma of the Iron Corset,” in Fashioning the Body: An Intimate History of the Silhouette, ed. Denis Bruna, exh. cat. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015), 67ff.; and for the depicted piece, see Kirsten Aschengreen Piacenti, ed., Museo Stibbert, Firenze: Abiti Europei (Florence: Polistampa, 2003), no. 20, 71. For a critical reading of the fashion use of these corsets, see Bendall, Shaping Femininity, 156.90 On this episode, see Roberta Orsi Landini and Bruna Niccoli, Moda a Firenze, 1540–1580: Lo Stile di Eleonora di Toledo e la sua Influenza (Florence: Polistampa, 2005), 35f., 131.91 On the stiffening of menswear, see Bendall, Shaping Femininity, 67ff.; and on “genderfluidity,” see Krause, “A Man in Armour,” 30f.92 On mixed material objects and metal fashion, see McCall, Brilliant Bodies, 18–26, 70–74, 96ff.; as well as Patterson, Fashion and Armour, 29f. For the inventory record, see Mario Scalini, “The Weapons of Lorenzo de’ Medici: An Examination of the Inventory of the Medici Palace in Florence drawn up upon the Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent in 1492,” in Held, Art, Arms, and Armour, 12–29, at 18f.93 For a contextualization within chivalric culture, see Tobias Capwell, “Cradle to Grave: Armour in the Life of the Renaissance Nobleman,” in Krause, Iron Men, 109–21, esp. 111ff.94 For a discussion of the portrait and the depicted armor, see Pierre Terjanian, “El Espectáculo del Rey Guerrero: Armaduras Reales y Pintadas de Felipe III,” in El Legado de Borgoña: Fiesta y Ceremonia Cortesana en la Europa de los Austrias (1454–1648), eds. Krista De Jonge, Bernado J. García García, and Alicia Esteban Estríngana (Madrid: Marcial Pons Historia, 2010), 625–36, at 629f.; Álvaro Soler del Campo, ed., The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain, exh. cat. (Madrid: TF editores, 2009), nos. 58–60, 256–59; José-A. Godoy and Silvio Leydi, eds., Parures Triomphales: Le Maniérisme dans l’Art de l’Armure Italienne, exh. cat. (Geneva: 5 Continents, 2003), nos. 81–82, 484ff.; and Stephen V. Grancsay, “Lucio Piccinino: Master Armorer of the Renaissance,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 22 (1964): 257–71, at 266–71.95 For armor symbolism in Spanish portraiture cf. Sarah Schroth, “Veneration and Beauty: Messages in the Image of t
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