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‘Who Walked against Time’: Nineteenth Century Intersections of Pedestrianism and Medicine

2023; Routledge; Volume: 40; Issue: 10-11 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09523367.2023.2280970

1743-9035

Bruce Hamilton, Greg Ryan,

Health Promotion and Cardiovascular Prevention

AbstractDuring the nineteenth century, both medicine and sport were transitioning into recognizably modern identities but no formal relationship between the two existed. It has been suggested that the medical profession had little engagement with sport during this period. One sport that was particularly popular during the nineteenth century was pedestrianism in which athletes performed a range of endurance walking challenges for money and fame. While it has previously been recognized that some medical practitioners were involved in the support of pedestrian athletes, to date there has been no formal evaluation of the magnitude or nature of that involvement. Hence there is a potential that the contribution of medicine to aspects of sport in the nineteenth century may have been under-recognized. Using predominantly contemporaneous reports, this paper investigates the medical support utilized by nineteenth century professional pedestrians. It illustrates that during a period in which medicine underwent a seismic paradigm shift, some doctors were actively involved in both the clinical support and scientific assessment of pedestrians. In so doing, the role that nineteenth century medical practitioners played in supporting endurance pedestrians is clarified and a gap in the literature addressed pertaining to the nineteenth century interactions of medicine and sport.Keywords: Sports medicinepedestrianisminjuryillnessnineteenth century Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 See Nikitas N. Nomikos et al., ‘The First Sport Injuries in the History of Medicine’, Archives of Medical Science. 6, no. 1 (2010): 1–3; Emin Ergen et al., ‘Sports Medicine: A European Perspective. Historical Roots, Definitions and Scope’, Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 46, no. 2 (2006): 167–75; Emin Ergen, ‘Roots of Sports Medicine’, Arch. Med. Deporte 31, no. 4 (2014): 263–7; G.A. Snook, ‘The History of Sports Medicine. Part I’, The American Journal of Sports Medicine 12, no. 4 (1984): 252–4.2 M.Y. Fares et al., ‘Sports Medicine in the Arab World’, in Handbook of Healthcare in the Arab World (London: Springer, 2021), h837–49.3 Vanessa Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science in the Nineteenth Century’, Past & Present 231, no. 1 (2016): 169–200; Mike Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine: Sportsmen and Doctors in Late Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Journal of Sport History 34, no. 1 (2007): 23–35; Neil Carter, ‘The Origins of British Sports Medicine, 1850–1914’, Gesnerus 70, no. 1 (2013): 17–35; R.J. Park, ‘Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise, Hygienic and Educative’, Journal of Sport History 14, no. 1 (1987): 28–60; Vanessa Heggie, A History of British Sports Medicine (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011); John M. Hoberman, ‘The Early Development of Sports Medicine in Germany’, in Sport and Exercise Science. Essays in the History of Sports Medicine, ed. By Jack W. Berryman and Roberta J. Park (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 233–80; Jack W. Berryman, Out of Many, One: A History of the American College of Sports Medicine (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1995); Matt J. Webber, Dropping the Bucket and Sponge. a History of Early Athletic Training 1881–1947 (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013). While the term ‘sports medicine’ is frequently reported as being first used by J.G.P. Williams in his seminal 1962 text (see Heggie, A History of British Sports Medicine, 109), Sport Medicine was actually the title of the 1953 published proceedings of the 1952 International Symposium of the Medicine and Physiology of Sports and Athletics at Helsinki’ (Helsinki: Finnish Association of Sports Medicine). Book titles such as Hygiene des Sports [Sports Hygiene] and Die Sportverletzungen [The Sports Injuries] are found in the German medical literature in 1910 and 1914, respectively and in 1932 Herbert Herxheimer published Grundriss der Sportmedizin (Outline of Sports Medicine).4 Simon Fletcher, Anthony P. Breitbach, Scott Reeves, ‘Interprofessional Collaboration in Sports Medicine: Findings from a Scoping Review’, Health and Interprofessional Practice. 3, no. 2 (2017): e1128.5 R. Miranda, ‘Suggestions for a Definition of Sports Medicine’, The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Rehabilitation 4, no. 2 (1964): 113; Carter, ‘Origins of British sports Medicine’, 17–35; C.M. Tipton, ‘Sports Medicine: A Century of Progress’, Journal of Nutrition 127, no. 5 (supplement) (1997): 878S–85S; Mark E. Batt and Donald A.D. Macleod, ‘The Coming of Age of Sports Medicine: Growing Demand Must be Matched by Specialist Accreditation and Recognition’, British Medical Journal, 314, no. 7081 (1997): 621; Ernst Jokl, What is Sports Medicine? (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964), 5; For a summary of the challenges in defining sports medicine, see: P. McCrory, ‘What is Sports and Exercise Medicine?’, British Journal of Sports Medicine 40, no. 12 (2006): 955–7.6 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 171–2.7 James C. Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reformers (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 14; Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London: Harper Collins, 1997), 304–47. For evidence of this translation in the early nineteenth century, see also Sir John Sinclair, The Code of Health and Longevity, or, a Concise View, of the Principles Calculated for the Preservation of Health and the Attainment of Long Life (Edinburgh: Arch Constable and Co., 1807), 19–23.8 Sinclair, Code of Health and Longevity, 10.9 Bruce Haley, The Healthy Body and Victorian Culture (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2013 [1978]), 3–22.10 Cristóbal Méndez, Book of Bodily Exercise, ed. E. Licht (Baltimore, MD: Waverley Press, 1960 [1553]); Girolamo Mercuriale, De Arte Gymnastica, critical edition by Concetta Pennuto, trans. by Vivian Nutton (Firenze: L.S. Olschki, 2008 [1573]).11 John Pugh, A Treatise on the Science of Muscular Action (London: Medicina Rara Ltd/The Curwen Press, 1970 [1794]), 11.12 A.F.M. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen. Being a Systematic Inquiry into the Most Rationale Means of Preserving Health and Prologing Life: Together with Physiological and Chemical Explanations, Calculated Chiefly for the Use of Families, in Order to Banish the Prevailing Abuses and Prejudices in Medicine, 3rd ed. (London: T.N. Longman and O. Rees, 1800), 447.13 See: W.G. George, Training for Athletics and Kindred Sports (London: The Universal Press Agency, 1903), 61–80; H.F. Wilkinson, Modern Athletics (London: Frederick Warne and Co., 1868), 80–90. For a brief outline of the emergence of pedestrian racing, see E.M. MacIntyre, ‘Pedestrianism to the Trust Fund – Athletics in its Historical and Social Contexts’, in Sport, Culture, Society: International Historical and Sociological Perspectives, ed. J.A. Mangan and R.B. Small (London: E. & F.N. Spon Ltd., 1986), 124–8.14 Performances, &c. of Charles Hall Better Known as Charles Westhall (Westminster: Blanchard and Sons, 1867). See also, Matthew Algeo, Pedestrianism: When Watching People Walk was America's Favourite Spectator Sport (Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press, 2014); P.F. Radford, ‘Women’s Foot-Races in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Popular and Widespread Practlce’, Sport History Review 25, no. 1 (1994): 50–61; Dahn Shaulis, ‘Women of Endurance: Pedestriennes, Marathoners, Ultramarathoners, and Others: Two Centuries of Women’s Endurance (1816–1996)’, Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 5, no. 2 (1996): 1–27; Michael Shortland, ‘The Science and Philosophy of Pedestrianism in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Australasian Victorian Studies Journal, 2, no. 1 (1996): 81–99.15 Thor Gotaas, Running: A Global History (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), 122.16 Timothy D. Noakes, ‘The Limits of Endurance Exercise’, Basic Research in Cardiology, no. 101 (2006): 408–17.17 Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 26, 28.18 See for example Carter, ‘Origins of British Sports Medicine’, 17–35; Heggie, A History of British Sports Medicine; Roberta J. Park, ‘Physicians, Scientists, Exercise and Athletics in Britain and America from the 1867 Boat Race to the Four-Minute Mile’, Sport in History 31, no. 1 (2011): 1–31; Domhnall MacAuley, ‘A History of Physical Activity, Health and Medicine’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 87, no. 1 (1994): 32–5.19 The mile distance was not officially standardized in the United Kingdom until 1824. In the seventeenth and eighteen centuries there was variation in the length of the standard mile, in many cases the old English mile may have been longer by up to a factor of 1.3, than the modern mile. See I.M. Evans, ‘A Cartographic Evaluation of the Old English Mile’, The Geographical Journal 141, no. 22 (1975): 259–64.20 Peter Radford, The Celebrated Captain Barclay: Sport, Money and Fame in Regency Britain (London: Headline Book Publishing, 2001), 1–14.21 Walter Thom, Pedestrianism; or, An Account of the Performance of Celebrated Pedestrians During the Last and Present Century; with a Full Narrative of Captain Barclay's Public and Private Matches; and An Essay on Training (Aberdeen: A. Brown and F. Frost, 1813).22 R.J. Park, ‘Athletes and Their Training in Britain and America, 1800–1914, in Berryman and Park, Sport and Exercise Science, 61–5.23 Radford, Celebrated Captain Barclay; Paul Bloomfield, ‘Captain Barclay’, The Eugenics Review 54, no. 1 (1962): 25–8; John M. Crawford, Peter F. Radford, and Hugh W. Simpson, ‘Chronobiological Analysis of 1000 Miles Walked in 1000 Hours’, Progress in Clinical and Biological Research, no. 341 (1990): 291–7; Scott A.G.M. Crawford, ‘Captain Barclay. Extraordinary Exerciser of the Ninteenth Century’, Iron Game History 1, nos. 4–5 (1991): 22–4.24 Sinclair, Code of Health and Longevity, vol. 2, Appendix, 162.25 Ibid., 161.26 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 169–200; Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 23–35; Vanesa Heggie, ‘A Century of Cardiomythology: Exercise and the Heart c. 1880–1980’, Social History of Medicine 23, no. 2 (2010): 280–98.27 Thom, Pedestrianism, 161–202.28 Neil Carter, Medicine, Sport and the Body: A Historical Perspective (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012), 82–3.29 Medical Register for the Year 1779 (London: J. Murray, 1779); T. Dust, ‘William Sandiver 2’, https://talkingdust.net/william-sandiver-2/ (accessed July 10, 2022). For a description of medical practice at this time, see Penelope J. Corfield, ‘From Poison Peddlers to Civic Worthies: The Reputation of the Apothecaries in Georgian England’, Social History of Medicine 22, no. 1 (2009): 1–21.30 D.U. Bloor, ‘The Rise of the General Practitioner in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 28, no. 190 (1978); 288–91; I.S.L. Loudon, ‘The Origins of the General Practitioner’, Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 33, no. 246 (1983): 13–8. See also Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 348, who described early nineteenth century doctors as ‘petty capitalists’, operating in a market which ‘could be lucrative but which was also competitive and insecure’.31 Dust, ‘William Sandiver’ 2’.32 Sinclair, Code of Health and Longevity, 139.33 Ibid., 137; Pierce Egan, Sporting Anecdotes, Original and Selected (New York, NY: Johnstone & Van Norden, 1823), 25.34 Thom, Pedestrianism, 131.35 W. Buchan, Domestic Medicine: A Treatise on the Prevention and Cure of Diseases, by Regimen and Simple Medicines (London: Milner and Sowerby, 1782), 265.36 Thom, Pedestrianism, 131–5.37 E. James, Practical Training for Running, Walking, Rowing, Wrestling, Boxing, Jumping, and All Kinds of Athletic Feats; Together with Tables of Proportional Measurements for Height and Weight of Men In and Out of Condition; Including Hints on Exercise, Diet, Clothing, and Advice to Trainers (New York, NY: Ed. James, 1877), 59.38 J.M. Robinson et al., ‘The VISA-A Questionnaire: A Valid and Reliable Index of the Clinical Severity of Achilles Tendinopathy’, British Journal of Sports Medicine 35, no. 5 (2001): 335–41; Alex Scott et al., ‘Sports and Exercise-Related Tendinopathies: A Review of Selected Topical Issues by Participants of the Second International Scientific Tendinopathy Symposium (ISTS) Vancouver 2012’, British Journal of Sports Medicine 47, no. 9 (2013): 536–44.39 Ibid.; J.L. Cook, K.M. Khan, and C. Purdam, ‘Achilles Tendinopathy’, Manual Therapy 7, no. 3 (2000): 121–30.40 Crawford et al., ‘Chronobiological Analysis of 1000 Miles Walked in 1000 Hours’, 291–7.41 Thom, Pedestrianism, 147.42 Jack W. Berryman, ‘Exercise and the Medical Tradition from Hippocrates through Antebellum America: A Review Essay’, in Berryman and Park, Sport and Exercise Science, 1–56.43 Buchan, Domestic Medicine, 399–400.44 Ibid., 485.45 Ibid., 470.46 Monika Haack and Janet M. Mullington, ‘Sustained Sleep Restriction Reduces Emotional and Physical Well-being’, Pain 119, no. 1–3 (2005): 56–64.47 C.J. Glynn, John W. Lloyd, and Simon Folkard, ‘The Diurnal Variation in Perception of Pain’, Proceedings of the Roual Society of Medicine no. 69 (1976); 369–72.48 Thom, Pedestrianism, 139–40.49 Ibid., 141,50 Crawford et al., ‘Chronobiological Analysis of 1000 Miles Walked in 1000 Hours’.51 Thom, Pedestrianism, 148–49.52 Ibid., 152.53 Ibid., 147–52.54 Egan, Sporting Anecdotes, 25.55 Martin R. Howard, ‘Walcheren 1809: A Medical Catastrophe’, British Medical Journal 319, no. 7225 (1999): 1642–5.56 Derek Martin, ‘The 2000 Mile Race: Pedestrianism in the Early Nineteenth Century’, www.playingpasts.co.uk/articles/athletics/the-2000-mile-race-pedestrianism-in-the-early-nineteenth-century/ (accessed June 30, 2023).57 G. Wilson, Sketch of the Life of George Wilson, the Blackheath Pedestrian Who Undertook to Walk One Thousand Miles in Twenty Days!! But was Interrupted By a Warrant from Certain Magistrates of the District, on the Morning of the Sixteenth Day, after Having Completed 750 miles (London: Hay and Turner, 1835), 47.58 Ibid.,13.59 Ibid., 83.60 Sussex Advertiser, September 25, 1815.61 Northampton Mercury, September 30, 1815.62 Ibid., 81.63 Ibid., 54.64 Ibid., 12.65 Ibid., 1–2.66 Joseph Gilbert and Thomas Howell, A Correct and Minute Journal of the Time Occupied in Every Mile by Mr John Stokes, of Bristol, During His Walk of Fifty Miles Per Day for Twenty Successive Days… (Bristol: Joseph Routh, 1815), 6–12.67 Martin, ‘The 2000 Mile Race’.68 1835 Chapter 50 5 and 6 Will 4: Highway Act; Richard Holt, Sport and the British: A Modern History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 349.69 Holt, Sport and the British, 74–134. See also Theodore Christian Knauff, Athletics for Physical Culture (New York, NY: J. Selwin Tait & Sons, 1894), 387–91; Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness, 304–30.70 C.B.G. Watson, Hints for Pedestrians, 2nd ed. (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1843), 20.71 E.R. Anderson, ‘Footnotes More Pedestrian Than Sublime: A Historical Background for the Foot-Races in Evelinea and Humphry Clinker’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, 14, no. 1 (1980): 56–68. See also M. Shearman, ‘Walking and Walkers’, in Athletics and Football (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1894), 126, who observed of walking matches that ‘They lack popularity, doubtless partly because they are not exciting, and partly because it is still true, as was remarked by Charles Westhall the pedestrian twenty-five years ago, that “walking is the most useful and at the same time the most abused of the athleteic sports of old England”. Now, as then, the public does not care for walking races, because when they go to see an athlete walk, the probability Is that they will see him shuffle, trot, or run.’72 On the popularity of walking in in New Zealand, see, for example, H.C.M. Norris, Settlers in Depression: A history of Hamilton, New Zealand, 1875–1894 (Auckland: Paul’s Book Arcade, 1964), 24, who refers to Cecil Danvers, a Hamilton West schoolmaster, who announced that he would walk 112 miles in 48 h while carrying 56 pounds in weight. ‘As the end of the task approached excitement increased, and about the last mile it was intense. A great crowd numbering about 300 persons was on the ground, and many followed him round, inconveniencing him seriously. He was, however, greatly assisted by a drum and fife band and by songs sung to marching tunes by the crowd.’ He eventually finished a quarter of a minute under the 48 h.73 Shaulis, ‘Women of Endurance’, 1–27.74 Otago Daily Times, August 5, 1874, 2. See also David Colquhoun, ‘The Remarkable Mrs Wiltshire: “Greatest Female Pedestrienne in the World’”, Turnbull Library Record no. 45 (2013), 13.75 British Medical Journal, May 31, 1856, 459; Rex Wright-St Clair, ‘Historia Nunc Vivat’: Medical Practitioners in New Zealand 1840 to 1930 (Christchurch: Cotter Medical History Trust, 2003), 43.76 Obituary, The Lancet, April 10, 1909, 1083; Rex Wright-St Clair, ‘Dr R. H. Bakewell Wielded a Ready Pen’, Journal of Medical Biography, no. 10 (2002): 100–4; R.V. Fulton, Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days (Dunedin: The Author, 1924), 196.77 Otago Witness, August 15, 1874, 20.78 P.S. Marshall, King of the Peds (Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse, 2008), 55.79 Lyttelton Times, September 27, 1875, 3.80 Wright-St Clair, Historia Nunc Vivat, 144; Lyttelton Times, September 27, 1875, 3.81 Algeo, Pedestrianism, 22–6. See also D.A. Jamaieson, Powderhall and Pedestrianism. The History of a Famous Sports Enclosure (1870–1943) (Edinburgh: W. & A.K. Johnston, 1943), 34; Thomas J. Osler and Edward L. Dodd, ‘Six‐Day Pedestrian Races’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301, no. 1 (1977): 853–7.82 For an outline of the eighteenth-century history of six-day races, see https://ultrarunninghistory.com/six-day-race-1/; Algeo, Pedestrianism, 50–3.83 ‘Walk Walk Walk’, words by H.M.L., music by C.T. Lockwood, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015096609956 (accessed April 26, 2023).84 Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 304–95; Carter, ‘Origins of British Sports Medicine’, 17–35.85 Porter, Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 304–47.86 Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 28–9.87 Ibid., 25. See also, Vanessa Heggie, ‘Sport (and Exercise) Medicine in Britain: Healthy Citizens and Abnormal Athletes’, Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 28, no. 2 (2011): 249–69.88 John Pearn, ‘The Earliest Days of First Aid’, British Medical Journal 309, no. 6970 (1994): 1718–20. For contemporary examples of first aid in sport literature see H. Peek and F.G. Aflalo, The Encyclopedia of Sport (London: Lawrence and Bullen, 1897), 394–8; A. Sinclair and W. Henry, Swimming (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1893), 170–257. As an example of first aid at a sporting event, see G. Hunt, First to Care. 125 Years of the Order of St John New Zealand 1885–2010 (Auckland: Libro International, 2009), 36.89 For example, A.H.P. Leuf, Hygiene for Base Ball Players: Being a Brief Consideration of the Body as a Mechanism … a Discussion of the Causes and Treament of the Disabilities of Players (London: A.J. Reach, 1888). For a summary of Leufs work see P.M. Teigen, ‘Sore Arms and Selective Memories: Alexander H.P. Leuf and the Beginning of Baseball Medicine’, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 50, no. 3 (1995): 391–408; Cotterell, On Some Common Injuries to Limbs, 11–12.90 R.D. Fox, ‘On Bone Setting (So-Called)’, Lancet 120, no. 3090 (1882): 843–5.91 Shearman, Athletics and Football, 170.92 See Heggie, ‘Century of Cardiomythology’. See also J.E. Morgan, University Oars: Being a Critical Enquiry Into the After Health of the Men Who Rowed in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat-Race, From the Year 1829 to 1869, Based on the Personal Experience of the Rowers Themselves (London: MacMillan and Co., 1873).93 Marshall, King of the Peds, 44.94 New York Times, September 23, 1915.95 A. Flint, ‘On the Physiological Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise; with Especial Reference to the Influence of Exercise Upon the Excretion of Nitrogen’, New York Medical Journal 13, no. 6 (1871): 609–97.96 Ibid., 618.97 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 169–200.98 Flint, ‘On the Physiological Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise’, 673.99 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 191.100 R. Tattersall, ‘Frederick Pavy (1829–1911)—The Last of the Physician Chemists: The Fitzpatrick Lecture 1996’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London 30, no. 3 (1996): 238.101 F.W. Pavy, ‘The Effect of Prolonged Muscular Exercise on the System’, The Lancet, February 26, 1876, 319–20.102 For a full description of this topic, see Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 169–200.103 Pavy, ‘The Effect of Prolonged Muscular Exercise’, 319–20.104 J.S. Cameron and J. Hicks, ‘Frederick Akbar Mahomed and His Role in the Description of Hypertension at Guy's Hospital’, Kidney International 49, no. 5 (1996): 1488–506. See also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Akbar_Mahomed.105 F. Mahomed, ‘The Effect of Prolonged Muscular Exertion on the Circulatory System’, British Medical Journal 1, no. 794 (1876): 360.106 J.A. Thompson, ‘Weston's Fourth Walk’, British Medical Journal 1, no. 793 (1876): 334–5.107 P. Morison, ‘John Ashburton Thompson’, Australian Dictionary of Biography, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/thompson-john-ashburton-8789 (accessed May 23, 2023).108 J.A. Thompson, ‘The Coca Leaf’, British Medical Journal 1, no. 794 (1876): 361–2.109 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 193; Thom, Pedestrianism, 115–20.110 Marshall, King of the Peds, 44, 55, 61, 88 113, 122, 265, 525–6, 546–8, 551, 660, 671–2, 675.111 Cited in Ibid., 551.112 J.L. Turk and E. Allen, ‘Bleeding and Cupping’, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 65, no. 2 (1983): 128–31.113 Marshall, King of the Peds, 554.114 C.L. Neil, W. Griffin, and W.J. Sturgess, Walking. A Practical Guide to Pedestrianism for Athletes and Others … With Contributions by WJ Sturgess and W. Griffin. With Illustrations (London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1905), 19. See also, J.I. Lupton and J.M. Lupton, The Pedestrians Record to Which is Added a Description of the External Human Form (London: W.H. Allen & Co. 1890).115 The National Police Gazette (New York), May 10, 1884, 7.116 Ibid., 8.117 Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 28.118 Ibid., 33.119 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science’, 187.120 Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 26–7.121 Heggie, ‘Bodies, Sport and Science, 171.122 Ibid.; Cronin, ‘Not Taking the Medicine’, 29.123 Cited in Wright-St Clair, ‘Dr R.H Bakewell’, 100–4.124 For further discussion on this topic, see Heggie, ‘Sport (and Exercise) Medicine’, 249–69.125 W. Collins, Man and Wife (London: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1990), 325.126 Wray Vamplew, ‘Bulimic Practices and Alcohol Consumption: Performance Enabling and Performance Enhancing Mechanisms in Nineteenth-Century British Sport’, Performance Enhancement & Health 1, no. 2 (2012): 51–4.127 G. Breslin et al., ‘Providing Sport Psychology Support to an Athlete in a Unique, Ultra-Endurance Event’, Journal of Sport Psychology in Action no. 5 (2014): 59–72; M.H. Murphy et al., ‘The Biochemical, Physiological and Psycholgoical Consequences of a “1,000 miles in 1,000 Hours” Walking Challenge’, European Journal of Applied Physiology no. 112 (2012): 781–8.128 G. Salvesen, ‘Six-Day Footraces in the Post-Pedestrianism Era’, Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports 15, no. 2 (2019): 117–27.129 Neil et al., Walking, 14.130 W.P. Welpton, Principles and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene (London: University Tutorial Press, 1908), 249.131 See: https://www.exerciseismedicine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/EIM-miracle-drug-handout.pdf (accessed October 1, 2023).132 For example, Shane O'Mara, In Praise of Walking: The New Science of How We Walk and Why It's Good for Us (London: Penguin Random House, 2019); Annabel Streets, 52 Ways to Walk: The Surprising Science of Walking for Wellness and Joy, One Week at a Time (London: Bloomsbury, 2022); J. Barton, R. Hine and J. Pretty, ‘The Health Benefits of Walking in Greenspaces of High Natural and Heritage Value’, Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences 6, no. 4 (2009): 261–78; I.-M. Lee and D.M. Buchner, ‘The Importance of Walking to Public Health’, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 40, no. 7 (2008): S512–8.Additional informationNotes on contributorsBruce HamiltonBruce Hamilton, Sport and Exercise Physician and Director of Performance Health for High Performance Sport New Zealand and the New Zealand Olympic Committee. Dr. Hamilton has an MD focussed on muscle injuries from the University of Otago.Greg RyanGreg Ryan, Professor in the Faculty of Environment, Society and Design at Lincoln University, is the author of three books focussed on sport. Most recently he co-authored Sport and the New Zealanders: A History with Geoff Watson.