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Flooding in Libya amid an economic crisis: what went wrong?

2024; Wolters Kluwer; Volume: 7; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1097/gh9.0000000000000401

2576-3342

Malik Olatunde Oduoye, Karim Arif Karim, Mayowa Odunayo Kareem, Aminu Shehu, Usman Abolaji Oyeleke, Habiba Zafar, Muhammad Muhsin Umar, Hafsa Arshad Azam Raja, Abdullahi Adeyemi Adegoke,

Hydrology and Drought Analysis

Introduction A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that inundates dry land1. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, or oceans, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries. Alternatively, flooding may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area flood1. Flooding is a natural phenomenon that has an impact on both the environment and human settlements. Libya is a Northern African country that is known for its aridity and desert. Despite its geography, it is vulnerable to flooding2. Flooding is caused by many factors or a combination of any of these: generally prolonged heavy rainfall (locally concentrated or throughout a catchment area), highly accelerated snowmelt, severe winds over water, unusually high tides, tsunamis, or failure of dams, levees, retention ponds, or other structures that retain water. The flooding in Libya that began on 11th September 2023, was due to damage to the Derna dam, which resulted in the release of about 30 million cubic meters of water3,4. The collapse of this dam could be due to several causes, such as Storm Daniel, bad policies toward flood control, and engineering flaws in Libya. Storm Daniel, a low-pressure weather system that formed over the Mediterranean Sea around the 4th of September 2023, caused record-breaking rainfall in Greece, equivalent to 18 months of rainfall in just 24 h3. This storm crossed the Mediterranean Sea and became a Medicane (a Mediterranean storm with hurricane properties), which made landfall in Libya on 10 September3. Other causes include heavy rainfall, in which most areas of Libya received 150–250 mm of precipitation. This was said to be equivalent to a year’s rainfall in 24 h in areas of Darna and Al Bayda3. The recent flooding in Libya resulted in the loss of the lives of 5000 people, while ~10 000 individuals are still missing, and 20 000 are internally displaced as of 18 September 20233–5. There is also damage to farmland and property in the city of Derna. Humanitarian aid of 500 000 euros from the European Union to mitigate the impact of Storm Daniel on Libya as of 13 September 20235. Several recommendations have been made regarding the faulty dams since 1998, and as recently as 2022, a researcher at Omar Al-Mukhtar University in Bayda, Libya, warned in a paper that the dams needed urgent attention, pointing out that there was a high potential for flood risk, despite no clear effort to repair them3. The effect of the flooding in Libya should be mitigated by providing humanitarian assistance and the involvement of necessary authorities to prevent the recurrence of such problems by providing good dam maintenance6. There is also an urgent need for a comprehensive flood risk mitigation strategy and infrastructure improvements. Additionally, floods have a lot of effects on both lives and properties. There is an increase in internally displaced individuals and an increased risk of transmission of waterborne diseases. As such, this research seeks to address these issues and provide solutions. The research also provides knowledge about flooding and its impact. The general objective of this article is to comprehensively assess the occurrence and economic ramifications of flooding in Libya. Whereas specific objectives are to understand flooding patterns in Libya, to assess the economic impact of flooding in Libya, to identify the areas that are most vulnerable to flooding in Libya, to assess the mitigation measures to curb the effects of the flood in Libya, and to make policy recommendations for flooding in Libya. Prevalence and the possible causes of flooding in Libya Floods are infrequent in Libya owing to the arid desert climate, characterized by minimal annual precipitation. Nevertheless, there have been isolated instances of flooding in the past, especially in coastal regions and dry riverbeds (wadis). The prevalence of floods in Libya poses a challenge in terms of estimation due to the limited data available. There is also no reliable information on the gender distribution of affected victims. Nonetheless, the International Rescue Committee (IRC) approximated that the majority of flood victims were women and children, given their higher likelihood of living in destitution and having limited access to resources. Furthermore, women and girls in Libya bear the responsibility of childcare and household chores, which often complicates their evacuation during a flood. In the year 1967, an occurrence of immense flooding occurred in the city of Benghazi, resulting in the death of over one hundred individuals4. Similarly, in 1988, copious amounts of precipitation induced flooding in the eastern region of Libya, which damaged infrastructure and displaced thousands of people. Moreover, in September 2004, the Kufra Oasis in the southeastern portion of Libya experienced severe inundation due to an excess of rainfall, consequently leading to severe consequences5. An analogous event unfolded in 2009, which resulted in the displacement of a significant number of people and substantial destruction of infrastructural and residential edifices. In the capital city of Tripoli and surrounding areas, torrential precipitation in October 2018 resulted in the inundation of the area, and a similar event occurred in May–June 2019 in Ghat municipality, with over 20 000 people affected and about 2500 displaced to nearby areas4,7. Four people died, including three children, and about 30 suffered minor injuries. Recently, in September 2023, Tropical Storm Daniel, a weather phenomenon of significant magnitude, made and fell in the eastern region of Libya, thereby making a direct impact on this particular geographical location. Due to this climatic disturbance, an abundance of precipitation ensued, leading to the occurrence of extensive flooding, leading to the death of over 5000 people and the displacement of a vast multitude of residents numbering in the thousands. The consequences of the catastrophic flood caused by Storm Daniel have led to the emergence of a humanitarian crisis of unimaginable scale in eastern Libya. The Red Cross reported that a staggering 3000 individuals have tragically perished, while an additional 10 000 individuals remain unaccounted for. The flooding has devastated the city of Derna, where two dams have collapsed, resulting in the complete submersion of entire residential areas5. The collapse of the Derna dams resulted in the discharge of an estimated 30 million cubic meters (39 million cubic yards) of water, subsequently leading to flooding downstream as the Wadi Derna overflowed its banks. As of 18th September 2023, estimates for the number of casualties span from 5300 to 20 000 individuals. This occurrence stands as the second most deadly dam failure in history, following the catastrophic Banqiao Dam failure in China in 1975. Consequences of flooding in Libya Storm Daniel struck eastern Libya on 10 September 2023, affecting most of the area’s 884 000 residents, including roughly 353 000 children, resulting in widespread flooding that destroyed infrastructure and claimed lives in several coastal cities and along rivers, including Benghazi, Al-Jabal Al-Akhder, Al-Marj, Batah, Bayada, Albayda, Shahat, and Sousse8. The storm, which caused two dams to burst and demolished structures in several communities, killed more than 4300 people. According to early estimates, there were at least 5000 injuries nationwide in the impacted areas, 2300 deaths in Derna alone, and over 30 000 people who went missing9. The storm brought severe weather that included high gusts and unexpectedly heavy rain, which affected several areas of the country. Bridges, roadways, and electrical grids were among the major infrastructures that were damaged by the storm8. The violent storm affected more than 350 000 children, displacing over 16 000 in Eastern Libya8. Several people who were displaced by the floods have reportedly left Derna for western cities, including Misrata, Qasr Akhyar, Hai Alandalus, and Ghiryan10. After over a decade of conflict, the children of Libya are currently dealing with yet the impact of another disaster. The health and safety of the children were seriously endangered by the floods, and this increased the likelihood of cholera and diarrhea outbreaks, as well as dehydration and malnutrition due to compromised safe water sources8. The wind and rain continued to cause substantial damage across western Turkey and the southern Balkan Peninsula. However, the city of Derna on the Libyan coast, which has more than 100 000 residents, was most devastated by the impact of the storm. Four people perished in Bulgaria, seven in Turkey, seventeen in Greece, and 170 in other cities in eastern Libya due to the rising waters. However, many died in Derna when the Abu Mansour and Derna (Belad) dams, which had been neglected for years, burst11. The Wadi Derna River, which cuts through the city, carried about 7.9 billion gallons (30 million cubic meters) of water downstream because of the dam’s collapse12. In the middle of the night, a wave of reddish mud that was roughly 7 m high struck, destroying homes, washing away the ground floors of buildings, and hurling people, vehicles, and debris into the sea. According to some estimates, the downpour left 400 buildings covered in a thick layer of mud and destroyed or severely damaged at least one-quarter of the city11. Following the devastating flood in Libya, villages and infrastructure were submerged by floodwaters in Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria. Thessaly, Greece suffered the biggest damage, with 720 km2 submerged. The floods also destroyed roads, buildings, train lines, and other infrastructure in and around the cities of Larissa and Volos, as well as spreading a thick layer of flood-driven silt across croplands, effectively halting the year’s harvest of cotton, tobacco, and other crops, and endangering future yields11. Control strategies for flooding in Libya amid economic crisis The most affected area, Derna, is in the eastern part of the country, which is not under the jurisdiction of the government in the west that is recognized internationally. Until 2019, the region was occupied by a few Islamic terrorist organizations, including localized affiliates of Al-Qa’eda and the Islamic State. Following the flood, there have been protests by the residents against the regional officials, calling for national unity in a nation that has been politically torn apart for more than a decade by conflict and disorder that have impeded the catastrophe response13. However, the United States has activated a disaster assistance response team in the affected area. Through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the United States has donated an initial $1 million in humanitarian aid. The Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) is made up of disaster specialists from USAID that will assess the most pressing needs and work with local and international aid organizations to assist. Additionally, the U.S. announced an additional $11 million in humanitarian assistance for affected people in the country. This additional funding will support the efforts of the UN World Food Programme (WFP) and other regional and global organizations, including UN agencies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), in providing critical humanitarian aid in Derna, Benghazi, and other Eastern Libyan regions affected by the storm and subsequent flooding. With help from USAID, WFP is attempting to provide 100 000 individuals in Eastern Libya with emergency food aid. Additionally, other U.S. government partners will offer internally displaced people and other flood-affected populations through mobile medical clinics, hygiene supplies, shelter support, safe drinking water, food, cash assistance, case management, dignified management of the dead, restoring family links, and psychological support services14. Subsequently, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Libyan Ministry of Health (MoH) are working to create six field hospitals and restore functionality in 10 health centers. In Derna, a field hospital with 100 beds has been established, which includes 10 intensive care beds, radiology services, and an obstetrics and gynecology section. The rural hospital in Al-Bayada village was devastated and had to close; therefore, the WHO has sent a mobile clinic to Assahel City in Al-Jabal Al-Akdar to serve Al-Bayada Village. Additionally, the WHO has provided medications for chronic illnesses to primary healthcare facilities in Al-Bayada, Al-Marj, Derna, Shahat, and Sousa. To examine the urgent needs, a WHO team met with the Derna health authorities on 21 September. Services ranging from ‘psychological first aid’ provided through the primary care system to specialized mental healthcare facilities for those who have been severely traumatized will be prioritized for the afflicted population. WHO has also increased its efforts to send out qualified personnel and resources for survivors dealing with grief, anxiety, despair, and post-traumatic stress disorders, in addition to managing any immediate physical damages. With the multiplication of drivers of diseases like flies and mosquitoes, the environmental conditions continue to be difficult. Stagnant water provides a mosquito breeding ground and promotes the development of malaria and other waterborne infections, especially in Al-Makhili, Derna, and Soussa. Between 14 September and 18 September 2023, 238 cases of diarrhea were reported, according to the National Center for Disease Control in Libya. With assistance from the WHO, the NCDC is overseeing disease surveillance initiatives. This involves prompt surveillance in hospitals, healthcare facilities, and shelters for displayed people for early detection of potential epidemics and implementation of rapid control measures. The organization is also actively working with the impacted communities to highlight the primary health hazards associated with the flood and how individuals can help shield themselves from water and food-borne illnesses. WHO and other health partners have run awareness programs that have emphasized the risks of consuming water from unreliable sources and encouraged the use of bottled water. Also, to increase understanding of how communities may safeguard themselves against diseases like malaria, hepatitis A, dengue, typhoid, and cholera, health education leaflets have been distributed. The WHO has provided information on how people might assist survivors by offering fundamental psychological first aid15. However, Libya claims that a lack of unified crisis management is impeding the delivery of relief to flood victims. Recommendations The flooding in Libya over the past few years has exacerbated the already existing economic crisis. There is a need for proper planning after analyzing this serious situation. Financial support should be provided in the form of loans and financial aid from international organizations so that the damages can be fixed. To prevent further damage, the Libyan government should establish and implement an improved flood warning system in both rural and urban areas of the country. An improved flood warning system in Libya can be achieved by installing modern weather monitoring systems and providing early warnings. Moreover, enhanced disaster management programs should be implemented to minimize the impact of flooding. The government should ensure regular assessments of risks and train local people for emergencies. Additionally, the Libyan government should establish more evacuation routes in case of sudden floods. The severe weather situation should also be dealt with urgently through the adoption of climate change measures by Libyans. For example, through the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices and renewable energy. Finally, international cooperation from neighboring and powerful nations is necessary to provide solutions for flooding in Libya in this trying time. This can be achieved by obtaining resources and best practices from countries that have faced similar challenges in the past. Conclusion Flooding in Libya is a serious public health problem that needs urgent attention as soon as possible, taking the best possible measures. This article presents the prevalence, possible causes, and consequences of flooding in Libya. As Libya is already suffering from an economic crisis, the flooding requires immediate global attention. Proper measures should by the government, the Libyans, and the global community should be mutually adopted to mitigate the impact of flooding in the country and lay the foundation for sustainable development, to find a lasting solution to flooding in Libya. Ethical approval Not applicable to this work. Consent Not applicable to this work. Sources of funding No funding was received for this work. Author contribution M.O.O.: conceptualization, resources, funding acquisition, supervision, project administration, and writing – review and editing. All authors were involved in validation, visualization, writing – the original draft, and final approval of the manuscript for publication. Conflicts of interest disclosure There are no conflicts of interest. Research registration unique identifying number (UIN) Not applicable to this work. Guarantor All authors. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned, externally peer-reviewed. Data availability statement Not applicable to this work.